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support of climate adaptation. This does not only serve to identify initial populations for breeding programmes, but can also identify farmers varieties (or varieties
bred for other areas) that may prove superior and can therefore be disseminated
directly. For example, in Ethiopia we found in a durum wheat trial that the best
farmer variety outperformed the best modern variety with a yield difference of 20%
(Mengistu et al. 2018).
The use of improved or modern varieties (MVs) has limitations in Africa (Salami
et al. 2010). MVs often require a high quantity of external inputs to fulfil their
potential. On African low-input farms in high-risk areas, landraces may be chosen
over MVs by local farmers because of their better adaptation, higher market value
and better end-product quality (Ceccarelli et al. 2010). In addition, the cultivation of
a small set of MVs over large areas lowers the genetic diversity at a landscape scale,
with detrimental effects on the resilience of agro-ecosystems (Cabell and Oelofse
2012).
At present, both public and private efforts fail to insert varietal diversity for climate adaptation into local farming systems in a rational way (Ceccarelli 2015).
On-farm testing is crucial to determine farmer knowledge and preferences (Mancini
et al. 2017). Such tests can also identify suitable germplasm for breeding and can be
linked to improved dissemination of the genetic material to local communities
through more efficient seed systems (Thomas et al. 2012). Current on-farm testing
is usually done with a limited set of elite materials, which are compared to the current market-leader variety. These trials require constant attention from technical
personnel. As a result, the testing is relatively costly, especially in marginal areas
where technical personnel must travel long distances. These trials are therefore kept
relatively small and thus have limited statistical power. In some cases no formal
statistical inference is done, and decisions are made based on tallies of farmer votes
and simple averages of yield data. These trials allow the release of a small number
of varieties backed by limited evidence of their value under farm conditions (Abay
and Bjørnstad 2009).
For climate adaptation of African smallholder agriculture, a different approach is
needed. The best approach would be a hybrid system in which the quantitative
aspects of conventional trials are combined with the benefits of participatory onfarm methods. This would ensure that a diverse range of useful genetic material
reaches farmers. A system in which farmers play a more active role would accelerate genetic gain and access to variety diversity, thus contributing to system resilience (Badstue et al. 2012).
In this chapter, we present a possible solution to a number of the problems of
on-farm trials: the triadic comparisons of technologies, or “tricot”. Following a citizen science philosophy, this approach increases farmer ownership of trials and uses
smart, simple data collection formats to help scale on-farm testing (van Etten et al.
2016). The tricot approach involves cost-effective, large-scale, repeated participatory evaluation of varieties under farm conditions using novel material from national
gene banks or other sources (advanced lines from breeding programmes, varieties
bred for other areas). Van Etten et al. (2016) provide a detailed discussion on how
the tricot approach simultaneously builds on and differs from previous participatory
C. Fadda and J. Etten
support of climate adaptation. This does not only serve to identify initial populations for breeding programmes, but can also identify farmers varieties (or varieties
bred for other areas) that may prove superior and can therefore be disseminated
directly. For example, in Ethiopia we found in a durum wheat trial that the best
farmer variety outperformed the best modern variety with a yield difference of 20%
(Mengistu et al. 2018).
The use of improved or modern varieties (MVs) has limitations in Africa (Salami
et al. 2010). MVs often require a high quantity of external inputs to fulfil their
potential. On African low-input farms in high-risk areas, landraces may be chosen
over MVs by local farmers because of their better adaptation, higher market value
and better end-product quality (Ceccarelli et al. 2010). In addition, the cultivation of
a small set of MVs over large areas lowers the genetic diversity at a landscape scale,
with detrimental effects on the resilience of agro-ecosystems (Cabell and Oelofse
2012).
At present, both public and private efforts fail to insert varietal diversity for climate adaptation into local farming systems in a rational way (Ceccarelli 2015).
On-farm testing is crucial to determine farmer knowledge and preferences (Mancini
et al. 2017). Such tests can also identify suitable germplasm for breeding and can be
linked to improved dissemination of the genetic material to local communities
through more efficient seed systems (Thomas et al. 2012). Current on-farm testing
is usually done with a limited set of elite materials, which are compared to the current market-leader variety. These trials require constant attention from technical
personnel. As a result, the testing is relatively costly, especially in marginal areas
where technical personnel must travel long distances. These trials are therefore kept
relatively small and thus have limited statistical power. In some cases no formal
statistical inference is done, and decisions are made based on tallies of farmer votes
and simple averages of yield data. These trials allow the release of a small number
of varieties backed by limited evidence of their value under farm conditions (Abay
and Bjørnstad 2009).
For climate adaptation of African smallholder agriculture, a different approach is
needed. The best approach would be a hybrid system in which the quantitative
aspects of conventional trials are combined with the benefits of participatory onfarm methods. This would ensure that a diverse range of useful genetic material
reaches farmers. A system in which farmers play a more active role would accelerate genetic gain and access to variety diversity, thus contributing to system resilience (Badstue et al. 2012).
In this chapter, we present a possible solution to a number of the problems of
on-farm trials: the triadic comparisons of technologies, or “tricot”. Following a citizen science philosophy, this approach increases farmer ownership of trials and uses
smart, simple data collection formats to help scale on-farm testing (van Etten et al.
2016). The tricot approach involves cost-effective, large-scale, repeated participatory evaluation of varieties under farm conditions using novel material from national
gene banks or other sources (advanced lines from breeding programmes, varieties
bred for other areas). Van Etten et al. (2016) provide a detailed discussion on how
the tricot approach simultaneously builds on and differs from previous participatory
C. Fadda and J. Etten