may alter species richness and species abundance (e.g. Penone et al. 2012;
Clauzel et al. 2013). In this chapter, we review these disturbance sources, their
effects on wildlife and the main actions to avoid or minimize their effects.
Main Railway Disturbances: Noise and Vibration, and Air,
Soil and Water Pollution
The two most known disturbances of railways are the noise and vibrations caused
by passing trains. However, railways are also responsible for a large amount of
emissions that cover a wide range of pollutants and toxic substances that affect the
atmosphere, soil and water worldwide (Plakhotnik et al. 2005). Another impact
resulting from the construction and establishment of the railways is soil erosion.
Here, we describe the main railway disturbances that can potentially affect wildlife.
Noise and Vibration
Railway noise pollution can be either from airborne sound or from
vibration-induced as a result of rail traffic (Czop and Mendrok 2011; Palacin et al.
2014). The main source of railway noise comes from freight wagons, followed by
high-speed trains and inner-urban railways (Guarinoni et al. 2012). However,
locomotives passing and accelerating, freight wagons braking, vibrations from rail
corrugation, and out-of-round wheels or vehicle coupling in shunting yards, are
other sources of noise (Clausen et al. 2010). Noise levels vary, depending on the
landscape and weather; open and flat areas allow noise to travel further than forest
or mountains areas. In mountainou areas, the effect of noise is greater within
valleys, when their width is less than the height of their walls, reducing the
attenuating effect of noise (Chiocchia et al. 2010). Frost can make the ground hard
and impede sound absorption, but fog prevents noise from dissipating.
Noise above 55 dB(A), where dB(A) is a measure that attempts to correct the
way the human ear perceives loudness, is considered noise pollution for humans,
and the sound values in the range 65–75 dB(A) cause stress to the body, leading to
arterial hypertension (high blood pressure), cardiovascular disease, and heart
attacks (Berglund et al. 1999). In Canada, the sound level of a passing train reaches
values up to 85 dB(A), but between trains the sound levels drop to 43–53 dB(A)
(CTA 2015). Measurement campaigns on high speed trains in several European
countries over 10 years revealed sound values ranging from 85.5 to 97 dB(A) when
the train speed was between 250 and 350 km/h (Gautier et al. 2008). In Japan,
Matsumoto et al. (2005) compared the noise as a function of distance and observed
a high noise level of 64 dB at 200 m from a railway in the countryside, a value
similar to that near residential areas (65.7 dB). In fact, in Japan, noise can still reach
72 dB at 50 m from the track, i.e., higher than the Japanese permissible standards of
70 dB(A) (Kanda et al. 2007).
82
P.S. Lucas et al.
Clauzel et al. 2013). In this chapter, we review these disturbance sources, their
effects on wildlife and the main actions to avoid or minimize their effects.
Main Railway Disturbances: Noise and Vibration, and Air,
Soil and Water Pollution
The two most known disturbances of railways are the noise and vibrations caused
by passing trains. However, railways are also responsible for a large amount of
emissions that cover a wide range of pollutants and toxic substances that affect the
atmosphere, soil and water worldwide (Plakhotnik et al. 2005). Another impact
resulting from the construction and establishment of the railways is soil erosion.
Here, we describe the main railway disturbances that can potentially affect wildlife.
Noise and Vibration
Railway noise pollution can be either from airborne sound or from
vibration-induced as a result of rail traffic (Czop and Mendrok 2011; Palacin et al.
2014). The main source of railway noise comes from freight wagons, followed by
high-speed trains and inner-urban railways (Guarinoni et al. 2012). However,
locomotives passing and accelerating, freight wagons braking, vibrations from rail
corrugation, and out-of-round wheels or vehicle coupling in shunting yards, are
other sources of noise (Clausen et al. 2010). Noise levels vary, depending on the
landscape and weather; open and flat areas allow noise to travel further than forest
or mountains areas. In mountainou areas, the effect of noise is greater within
valleys, when their width is less than the height of their walls, reducing the
attenuating effect of noise (Chiocchia et al. 2010). Frost can make the ground hard
and impede sound absorption, but fog prevents noise from dissipating.
Noise above 55 dB(A), where dB(A) is a measure that attempts to correct the
way the human ear perceives loudness, is considered noise pollution for humans,
and the sound values in the range 65–75 dB(A) cause stress to the body, leading to
arterial hypertension (high blood pressure), cardiovascular disease, and heart
attacks (Berglund et al. 1999). In Canada, the sound level of a passing train reaches
values up to 85 dB(A), but between trains the sound levels drop to 43–53 dB(A)
(CTA 2015). Measurement campaigns on high speed trains in several European
countries over 10 years revealed sound values ranging from 85.5 to 97 dB(A) when
the train speed was between 250 and 350 km/h (Gautier et al. 2008). In Japan,
Matsumoto et al. (2005) compared the noise as a function of distance and observed
a high noise level of 64 dB at 200 m from a railway in the countryside, a value
similar to that near residential areas (65.7 dB). In fact, in Japan, noise can still reach
72 dB at 50 m from the track, i.e., higher than the Japanese permissible standards of
70 dB(A) (Kanda et al. 2007).
82
P.S. Lucas et al.