46
Keywords Life cycle assessment, LCA • Life cycle sustainability assessment,
LCSA • Life cycle scenario assessment • Rebound • Uncertainty • Social life cycle
assessment, SLCA • Life cycle costing, LCC
1 Introduction
Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) has developed fast over the last three
decades. The fi rst studies that are now recognised as (partial) LCAs date from the
late 1960s and early 1970s, a period in which environmental issues like resource
and energy effi ciency, pollution control and solid waste became issues of broad
public concern. One of the fi rst studies quantifying the resource requirements, emission loadings and waste fl ows of different beverage containers was conducted by
Midwest Research Institute (MRI) for the Coca Cola Company in 1969. Similar but
independent studies were conducted in Europe by Sundström ( 1971 ) and by Basler
and Hofman ( 1974 ). Together with several follow-ups, this marked the beginning of
the development of LCA as we know it today (Guinée 1995 ; Hunt and Franklin
1996 ; Baumann and Tillman 2004 ; Guinée et al. 2011 ).
The period 1970–1990 comprised the decades of conception of LCA with widely
diverging approaches, terminologies and results. There was a clear lack of international scientifi c discussion and exchange platforms for LCA. LCAs were performed
using different methods and without a common theoretical framework. The obtained
results differed greatly, even when the objects of the study were the same (Guinée
et al. 1993 ).
The 1990s saw a remarkable growth of scientifi c and coordination activities
worldwide, which among other things is refl ected in the number of LCA guides and
handbooks produced (ILV et al. 1991 ; Lindfors 1992 ; Grieshammer et al. 1991 ;
Heijungs et al. 1992 ; Vigon et al. 1993 ; Lindfors et al. 1995 ; Curran 1996 ; Hauschild
and Wenzel 1998 ). Also the fi rst scientifi c journals appeared with LCA as their key
topic or one of their main key topics. The period 1990–2000 showed convergence
and harmonisation of methods through SETAC’s coordination and ISO’s standardisation activities, providing a standardised framework and terminology, and platforms for debate and harmonisation of LCA methods. During this period, LCA also
became increasingly part of policy documents and legislation, particularly focusing
on packaging. It is also the period that the scientifi c fi eld of industrial ecology (IE)
emerged, with life cycle thinking and LCA as one of its key tools (Graedel 1996 ; see
Chap. 1 ).
The fi rst decade of the twenty-fi rst century has shown an ever-increasing attention to LCA resulting in new textbooks (e.g. Guinée et al. 2002 ; Baumann and
Tillman 2004 ; EC 2010 ; Curran 2012 ; Klöpffer and Grahl 2014 ). LCA was increasingly used as a tool for supporting policies and (bioenergy) performance-based
regulation. Life cycle-based carbon footprint standards were established worldwide
in this period. During this period, LCA methods were elaborated in further detail,
J. Guinée
Keywords Life cycle assessment, LCA • Life cycle sustainability assessment,
LCSA • Life cycle scenario assessment • Rebound • Uncertainty • Social life cycle
assessment, SLCA • Life cycle costing, LCC
1 Introduction
Environmental life cycle assessment (LCA) has developed fast over the last three
decades. The fi rst studies that are now recognised as (partial) LCAs date from the
late 1960s and early 1970s, a period in which environmental issues like resource
and energy effi ciency, pollution control and solid waste became issues of broad
public concern. One of the fi rst studies quantifying the resource requirements, emission loadings and waste fl ows of different beverage containers was conducted by
Midwest Research Institute (MRI) for the Coca Cola Company in 1969. Similar but
independent studies were conducted in Europe by Sundström ( 1971 ) and by Basler
and Hofman ( 1974 ). Together with several follow-ups, this marked the beginning of
the development of LCA as we know it today (Guinée 1995 ; Hunt and Franklin
1996 ; Baumann and Tillman 2004 ; Guinée et al. 2011 ).
The period 1970–1990 comprised the decades of conception of LCA with widely
diverging approaches, terminologies and results. There was a clear lack of international scientifi c discussion and exchange platforms for LCA. LCAs were performed
using different methods and without a common theoretical framework. The obtained
results differed greatly, even when the objects of the study were the same (Guinée
et al. 1993 ).
The 1990s saw a remarkable growth of scientifi c and coordination activities
worldwide, which among other things is refl ected in the number of LCA guides and
handbooks produced (ILV et al. 1991 ; Lindfors 1992 ; Grieshammer et al. 1991 ;
Heijungs et al. 1992 ; Vigon et al. 1993 ; Lindfors et al. 1995 ; Curran 1996 ; Hauschild
and Wenzel 1998 ). Also the fi rst scientifi c journals appeared with LCA as their key
topic or one of their main key topics. The period 1990–2000 showed convergence
and harmonisation of methods through SETAC’s coordination and ISO’s standardisation activities, providing a standardised framework and terminology, and platforms for debate and harmonisation of LCA methods. During this period, LCA also
became increasingly part of policy documents and legislation, particularly focusing
on packaging. It is also the period that the scientifi c fi eld of industrial ecology (IE)
emerged, with life cycle thinking and LCA as one of its key tools (Graedel 1996 ; see
Chap. 1 ).
The fi rst decade of the twenty-fi rst century has shown an ever-increasing attention to LCA resulting in new textbooks (e.g. Guinée et al. 2002 ; Baumann and
Tillman 2004 ; EC 2010 ; Curran 2012 ; Klöpffer and Grahl 2014 ). LCA was increasingly used as a tool for supporting policies and (bioenergy) performance-based
regulation. Life cycle-based carbon footprint standards were established worldwide
in this period. During this period, LCA methods were elaborated in further detail,
J. Guinée