195
Nevertheless, efforts should be made to minimize the rebound effect wherever
possible. The best way to do this is to encourage a wholesale shift in expenditure
patterns towards low carbon goods and services. The rebound effect studies also
highlight the importance of investment decisions, and Druckman et al. ( 2011a )
show that in order to achieve zero rebound, the money saved through the abatement
or effi ciency actions should be invested in carbon neutral or reducing investments.
5 Concluding Comments
This chapter has explored the drivers and components of household carbon footprints. Evidence shows that ‘hair-shirt’ policies, particularly within the realm of
recreation and leisure, are unlikely to gain enough traction to achieve the widespread changes needed (Soper 2008 ). The ‘holy grail’ is thus to devise low carbon
lifestyles that achieve maximum happiness. However, economic growth (the policy
goal of most governments
11
) aims to increase incomes. But it is generally found that
as incomes increase, carbon footprints are likely to increase while well-being levels
off (Lenzen and Cummins 2013 ; Jackson 2009 ). This raises the question: which
policies enhance well-being, or at least do not reduce well-being, while being environmentally benefi cial? Such activities represent win-win opportunities for encouraging activities which give rise to relatively low quantities of carbon emissions
while at the same time enhancing well-being and happiness.
Reviews of the literature reveal that social activities such as conversing with
friends and family, making love, reading and carrying out hobbies are low carbon
activities that generally make people happy (Csikszentmihalyi 2006 ; Holmberg
et al. 2012 ; Kahneman et al. 2004 ; Caprariello and Reis 2012 ; Nassen and Larsson
2015 ). For many of the activities that generally enhance happiness, the carbon emissions depend on how they are carried out. For example, being close to nature and
physical activities such as walking, exercising and sport can be relatively low carbon
if carried out without the use of personal transportation. Csikszentmihalyi ( 2006 )
talks about how goal-orientated activities can induce high levels of happiness. His
theory is that when a person is carrying out an activity that is all- encompassing, in
that the activity requires total concentration and focus (in other words, the person is
“in the fl ow”) then a high state of happiness can be achieved. Examples of this
include playing a musical instrument or singing in a choir, both of which can be
done in relatively low carbon ways, but one of Csikszentmihalyi’s examples is the
state of fl ow achieved during downhill skiing, and, depending on where one lives,
this can be a very high carbon activity. Gatersleben et al. ( 2008 ) investigated how
volunteering can yield high levels of happiness and, again, this may be carried out
in high or low carbon ways. Shopping is an example of an activity that generally
brings happiness, but is, arguably, rarely a particularly low carbon activity.
11 The notable exception to this was Bhutan which has had for some years, the goal of increasing
gross national happiness (Zurick 2006 ).
9 Understanding Households as Drivers of Carbon Emissions
Nevertheless, efforts should be made to minimize the rebound effect wherever
possible. The best way to do this is to encourage a wholesale shift in expenditure
patterns towards low carbon goods and services. The rebound effect studies also
highlight the importance of investment decisions, and Druckman et al. ( 2011a )
show that in order to achieve zero rebound, the money saved through the abatement
or effi ciency actions should be invested in carbon neutral or reducing investments.
5 Concluding Comments
This chapter has explored the drivers and components of household carbon footprints. Evidence shows that ‘hair-shirt’ policies, particularly within the realm of
recreation and leisure, are unlikely to gain enough traction to achieve the widespread changes needed (Soper 2008 ). The ‘holy grail’ is thus to devise low carbon
lifestyles that achieve maximum happiness. However, economic growth (the policy
goal of most governments
11
) aims to increase incomes. But it is generally found that
as incomes increase, carbon footprints are likely to increase while well-being levels
off (Lenzen and Cummins 2013 ; Jackson 2009 ). This raises the question: which
policies enhance well-being, or at least do not reduce well-being, while being environmentally benefi cial? Such activities represent win-win opportunities for encouraging activities which give rise to relatively low quantities of carbon emissions
while at the same time enhancing well-being and happiness.
Reviews of the literature reveal that social activities such as conversing with
friends and family, making love, reading and carrying out hobbies are low carbon
activities that generally make people happy (Csikszentmihalyi 2006 ; Holmberg
et al. 2012 ; Kahneman et al. 2004 ; Caprariello and Reis 2012 ; Nassen and Larsson
2015 ). For many of the activities that generally enhance happiness, the carbon emissions depend on how they are carried out. For example, being close to nature and
physical activities such as walking, exercising and sport can be relatively low carbon
if carried out without the use of personal transportation. Csikszentmihalyi ( 2006 )
talks about how goal-orientated activities can induce high levels of happiness. His
theory is that when a person is carrying out an activity that is all- encompassing, in
that the activity requires total concentration and focus (in other words, the person is
“in the fl ow”) then a high state of happiness can be achieved. Examples of this
include playing a musical instrument or singing in a choir, both of which can be
done in relatively low carbon ways, but one of Csikszentmihalyi’s examples is the
state of fl ow achieved during downhill skiing, and, depending on where one lives,
this can be a very high carbon activity. Gatersleben et al. ( 2008 ) investigated how
volunteering can yield high levels of happiness and, again, this may be carried out
in high or low carbon ways. Shopping is an example of an activity that generally
brings happiness, but is, arguably, rarely a particularly low carbon activity.
11 The notable exception to this was Bhutan which has had for some years, the goal of increasing
gross national happiness (Zurick 2006 ).
9 Understanding Households as Drivers of Carbon Emissions