98
et al. 2010; Lidgard et al. 2012). Areas of predator overlap
often occur in regions with high ecological importance, and
are therefore useful in designing MPA boundaries. Raymond
et al. (2015) used combined tracking data of six species
(Adélie Pygoscelis adeliae and emperor Aptenodytes forsteri
penguins, light-mantled albatross Phoebetria palpebrata,
Antarctic fur seals, southern elephant seals, and Weddell
seals) to identify areas of particular ecological significance.
These areas were characterized by their proximity to breeding
colonies and by sea-ice dynamics, and were therefore considered in the MPA proposal for East Antarctica (Raymond et al.
2015). A similar study used tracking data from 14 different
predator species to identify their foraging habitats around the
Prince Edward Islands (Reisinger et al. 2018). Amongst others, the results of this study can support the conservation and
management of Subantarctic ecosystems and the marine
predators they sustain (Reisinger et al. 2018).
Another effective aspect of protective measures can be to
establish corridors that link the breeding and foraging
grounds of migratory species. One study used a geospatial
approach to design a corridor along the north-west coast of
Australia that incorporates 11 existing MPAs and overlaps
with humpback whale migratory tracks (Pendoley et al.
2014). The study concluded that the proposed network would
be beneficial for at least 20 other marine vertebrates, although
not all at the same temporal scale (Pendoley et al. 2014).
Establishing pelagic MPAs for oceanic species is another
possible measure in adaptive and dynamic management. Biotelemetry can be a useful tool to acknowledge their necessity
and to determine their flexible boundaries (Game et al. 2009).
For instance, tiger sharks Galeocerdo cuvier were considered
to be a reef-associated coastal species, but bio-telemetry actually showed that they display directional movements across
ocean basins (Holland et al. 1999; Lowe et al. 2006; Heithaus
et al. 2007). Another study determined the primary migratory
corridor of gray whales, and concluded that they face a wider
range of industrial activities and developments than previously thought (Ford et al. 2012). Protecting far-ranging species can present a major challenge for spatial management,
but they are not always equally vulnerable over their entire
range (Game et al. 2009). These species often exhibit
increased vulnerability in a small number of demographically
critical areas, as is the case in wandering albatrosses Diomedea
exulans (Weimerskirch et al. 2006). Other species potentially
overlap with different human activities during each stage of
their migration (e.g., humpback whales) (Rosenbaum et al.
2014). This example highlights the need for adaptive and
dynamic management once more, for it would be economically advisable to move the pelagic MPA in space and time
synchronously with the whales’ migration.
Tracking data can also identify high-use areas and coordinate policy actions that mitigate anthropogenic risks such as
those associated with ship strikes, offshore wind farms, oil
spills, or bycatch. For instance, manta ray Manta birostris
aggregations coincide with some of the busiest shipping lanes
(Halpern et al. 2008). This, together with the expansion of
megafauna tourism industry, could have an impact on their
population numbers (Berman-Kowalewski et al. 2010).
However, despite the fact that manta rays forage over large
spatial scales (~100 km) far offshore, they also show high site
fidelity and associate with frontal zones (Graham et al. 2012).
This knowledge could be used to establish new dynamically
protected areas overlaying the frontal region (Graham et al.
2012). Bio-telemetry can also be used to estimate seabirds’
vulnerability to offshore wind farms by determining activityspecific and spatially explicit flight heights and collision risks
(Cleasby et al. 2015). Another example revealed that 25% of
the North American northern gannet populations migrate
annually to the Gulf of Mexico and suffered from severe oiling
in the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon explosion
(Montevecchi et al. 2012a, b). These findings contrasted discernibly with available mark-recapture data, and showed that
tracking research can be extremely useful when little information on animal distribution in pollution zones is available
(Montevecchi et al. 2012a). Tracking data combined with survival and reproduction measurements from their colonies can
reveal many possible repercussions of marine pollution, and
inform management about conservation concerns
(Montevecchi et al. 2012a). Another widespread anthropogenic problem is air-breathing megafauna bycatch. This
bycatch intensity varies substantially within and between
catch gear and regions (Lewison et al. 2014). Tracking data of
marine predators can be overlapped with fisheries data for a
dynamic management approach, which could minimize
bycatch. For example, an improved understanding of the horizontal and vertical spatiotemporal distribution of North Pacific
albatrosses in relation to pelagic fisheries could improve management protocols (e.g., time- area closures and gear mitigation), to reduce the bycatch of these endangered and threatened
species (Costa et al. 2012). Lastly, one of the most interesting
applications to date is the automated, near-real-time density
prediction tool for Eastern North Pacific blue whales
Balaenoptera musculus, which enables a more accurate examination of the year-round spatiotemporal overlap of the whales
with potentially harmful human activities, such as shipping
(Hazen et al. 2016). This study identified high interannual
variability in occurrence, emphasizing again the benefit of a
dynamic approach (Hazen et al. 2016). Tools like this allow a
finer-scale management, which is more economically feasible
and socially acceptable (Hazen et al. 2016).
Undoubtedly, there is a necessity for innovative and
interdisciplinary approaches, monitoring programs and
research initiatives to inform decision makers (Cooke
2008), but it is not only those people who need to be
informed. In light of current rapid environmental changes,
it is also imperative to engage the general public, and to
B. C. Heylen and D. A. Nachtsheim
et al. 2010; Lidgard et al. 2012). Areas of predator overlap
often occur in regions with high ecological importance, and
are therefore useful in designing MPA boundaries. Raymond
et al. (2015) used combined tracking data of six species
(Adélie Pygoscelis adeliae and emperor Aptenodytes forsteri
penguins, light-mantled albatross Phoebetria palpebrata,
Antarctic fur seals, southern elephant seals, and Weddell
seals) to identify areas of particular ecological significance.
These areas were characterized by their proximity to breeding
colonies and by sea-ice dynamics, and were therefore considered in the MPA proposal for East Antarctica (Raymond et al.
2015). A similar study used tracking data from 14 different
predator species to identify their foraging habitats around the
Prince Edward Islands (Reisinger et al. 2018). Amongst others, the results of this study can support the conservation and
management of Subantarctic ecosystems and the marine
predators they sustain (Reisinger et al. 2018).
Another effective aspect of protective measures can be to
establish corridors that link the breeding and foraging
grounds of migratory species. One study used a geospatial
approach to design a corridor along the north-west coast of
Australia that incorporates 11 existing MPAs and overlaps
with humpback whale migratory tracks (Pendoley et al.
2014). The study concluded that the proposed network would
be beneficial for at least 20 other marine vertebrates, although
not all at the same temporal scale (Pendoley et al. 2014).
Establishing pelagic MPAs for oceanic species is another
possible measure in adaptive and dynamic management. Biotelemetry can be a useful tool to acknowledge their necessity
and to determine their flexible boundaries (Game et al. 2009).
For instance, tiger sharks Galeocerdo cuvier were considered
to be a reef-associated coastal species, but bio-telemetry actually showed that they display directional movements across
ocean basins (Holland et al. 1999; Lowe et al. 2006; Heithaus
et al. 2007). Another study determined the primary migratory
corridor of gray whales, and concluded that they face a wider
range of industrial activities and developments than previously thought (Ford et al. 2012). Protecting far-ranging species can present a major challenge for spatial management,
but they are not always equally vulnerable over their entire
range (Game et al. 2009). These species often exhibit
increased vulnerability in a small number of demographically
critical areas, as is the case in wandering albatrosses Diomedea
exulans (Weimerskirch et al. 2006). Other species potentially
overlap with different human activities during each stage of
their migration (e.g., humpback whales) (Rosenbaum et al.
2014). This example highlights the need for adaptive and
dynamic management once more, for it would be economically advisable to move the pelagic MPA in space and time
synchronously with the whales’ migration.
Tracking data can also identify high-use areas and coordinate policy actions that mitigate anthropogenic risks such as
those associated with ship strikes, offshore wind farms, oil
spills, or bycatch. For instance, manta ray Manta birostris
aggregations coincide with some of the busiest shipping lanes
(Halpern et al. 2008). This, together with the expansion of
megafauna tourism industry, could have an impact on their
population numbers (Berman-Kowalewski et al. 2010).
However, despite the fact that manta rays forage over large
spatial scales (~100 km) far offshore, they also show high site
fidelity and associate with frontal zones (Graham et al. 2012).
This knowledge could be used to establish new dynamically
protected areas overlaying the frontal region (Graham et al.
2012). Bio-telemetry can also be used to estimate seabirds’
vulnerability to offshore wind farms by determining activityspecific and spatially explicit flight heights and collision risks
(Cleasby et al. 2015). Another example revealed that 25% of
the North American northern gannet populations migrate
annually to the Gulf of Mexico and suffered from severe oiling
in the aftermath of the Deepwater Horizon explosion
(Montevecchi et al. 2012a, b). These findings contrasted discernibly with available mark-recapture data, and showed that
tracking research can be extremely useful when little information on animal distribution in pollution zones is available
(Montevecchi et al. 2012a). Tracking data combined with survival and reproduction measurements from their colonies can
reveal many possible repercussions of marine pollution, and
inform management about conservation concerns
(Montevecchi et al. 2012a). Another widespread anthropogenic problem is air-breathing megafauna bycatch. This
bycatch intensity varies substantially within and between
catch gear and regions (Lewison et al. 2014). Tracking data of
marine predators can be overlapped with fisheries data for a
dynamic management approach, which could minimize
bycatch. For example, an improved understanding of the horizontal and vertical spatiotemporal distribution of North Pacific
albatrosses in relation to pelagic fisheries could improve management protocols (e.g., time- area closures and gear mitigation), to reduce the bycatch of these endangered and threatened
species (Costa et al. 2012). Lastly, one of the most interesting
applications to date is the automated, near-real-time density
prediction tool for Eastern North Pacific blue whales
Balaenoptera musculus, which enables a more accurate examination of the year-round spatiotemporal overlap of the whales
with potentially harmful human activities, such as shipping
(Hazen et al. 2016). This study identified high interannual
variability in occurrence, emphasizing again the benefit of a
dynamic approach (Hazen et al. 2016). Tools like this allow a
finer-scale management, which is more economically feasible
and socially acceptable (Hazen et al. 2016).
Undoubtedly, there is a necessity for innovative and
interdisciplinary approaches, monitoring programs and
research initiatives to inform decision makers (Cooke
2008), but it is not only those people who need to be
informed. In light of current rapid environmental changes,
it is also imperative to engage the general public, and to
B. C. Heylen and D. A. Nachtsheim