183
assessments are linked to various EU directives
2 for a possible harmonisation of
aims and objectives (Andersen et al. 2011 ), but the ultimate success of eutrophication
management strongly rests with national implementation plans . It is yet unclear how
these will be further implemented (Gilek et al. 2013 ; Pihlajamäki and Tynkkynen 2011 ).
The inclusion of stakeholders into processes of management and policymaking
with regard to eutrophication in the Baltic Sea is still underdeveloped. While
HELCOM has moved from an observer strategy to stakeholder dialogue forums,
farmers both nationally and internationally have raised their concerns in connection
with the most recent HELCOM ministerial declaration in 2013. Farmers want to be
more involved and voice their opinions about ecological and scientifi c as well as
socio-economic aspects related to the implementation of the BSAP (BFFE 2013 ;
LRF 2013 ; see Sect. 8.3.2 ).
8.3.1.3 Invasive Alien Species
Invasive alien species (IAS) are recognised as one of the most severe threats to
marine biodiversity worldwide. Still, management of environmental risks connected
with IAS is a new and undeveloped fi eld of environmental governance (cf. Smolarz
et al. 2016 ). Shipping , which primarily via ballast water has been the source of
approximately 50 % of nonindigenous species found in the Baltic Sea (Leppäkoski
and Laine 2009 ), is currently the prime focus in attempts to develop regulations to
manage IAS risks in the marine environment. At the core of these regulatory
developments is the international BWM Convention ,
3 which sets up standards and
procedures for the management and control of ships’ ballast waters and sediments
to prevent the spread of harmful aquatic organisms. However, although the BWM
Convention was opened for signatures by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) in 2004, it is not expected to enter into force until 2015–2016 at the earliest
due to a slow ratifi cation process in many countries.
4 Still, substantial efforts have
at the same time been made by intergovernmental organisations such as the EU and
HELCOM to improve regulations on IAS, as well as to facilitate implementation of
the BWM Convention, for example, by providing guidance and science support
adapted to the European and Baltic Sea contexts. The EU has recently adopted a
regulation on IAS (EU 2014 ) based on prevention, early warning and rapid response
and management, leaving it to member states to establish science-based lists of
IAS. Moreover, HELCOM ( 2014 ) has drawn up voluntary recommendations for
2 Examples of such EU directives are the Water Framework Directive (WFD), the Marine Strategy
Framework Directive (MSFD), the Nitrates Directive and the Urban Wastewater Directive.
3 International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments;
see
http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/BallastWaterManagement/Pages/
BWMConvention.aspx
4 The convention enters into force 12 months after ratifi cation by 30 states, representing 35 % of
world merchant shipping tonnage; at the time of writing, in May 2015, 44 states with 32.9 % of the
tonnage have done so.
8 Science-Policy Interfaces in Baltic Sea Environmental Governance: Towards…
assessments are linked to various EU directives
2 for a possible harmonisation of
aims and objectives (Andersen et al. 2011 ), but the ultimate success of eutrophication
management strongly rests with national implementation plans . It is yet unclear how
these will be further implemented (Gilek et al. 2013 ; Pihlajamäki and Tynkkynen 2011 ).
The inclusion of stakeholders into processes of management and policymaking
with regard to eutrophication in the Baltic Sea is still underdeveloped. While
HELCOM has moved from an observer strategy to stakeholder dialogue forums,
farmers both nationally and internationally have raised their concerns in connection
with the most recent HELCOM ministerial declaration in 2013. Farmers want to be
more involved and voice their opinions about ecological and scientifi c as well as
socio-economic aspects related to the implementation of the BSAP (BFFE 2013 ;
LRF 2013 ; see Sect. 8.3.2 ).
8.3.1.3 Invasive Alien Species
Invasive alien species (IAS) are recognised as one of the most severe threats to
marine biodiversity worldwide. Still, management of environmental risks connected
with IAS is a new and undeveloped fi eld of environmental governance (cf. Smolarz
et al. 2016 ). Shipping , which primarily via ballast water has been the source of
approximately 50 % of nonindigenous species found in the Baltic Sea (Leppäkoski
and Laine 2009 ), is currently the prime focus in attempts to develop regulations to
manage IAS risks in the marine environment. At the core of these regulatory
developments is the international BWM Convention ,
3 which sets up standards and
procedures for the management and control of ships’ ballast waters and sediments
to prevent the spread of harmful aquatic organisms. However, although the BWM
Convention was opened for signatures by the International Maritime Organization
(IMO) in 2004, it is not expected to enter into force until 2015–2016 at the earliest
due to a slow ratifi cation process in many countries.
4 Still, substantial efforts have
at the same time been made by intergovernmental organisations such as the EU and
HELCOM to improve regulations on IAS, as well as to facilitate implementation of
the BWM Convention, for example, by providing guidance and science support
adapted to the European and Baltic Sea contexts. The EU has recently adopted a
regulation on IAS (EU 2014 ) based on prevention, early warning and rapid response
and management, leaving it to member states to establish science-based lists of
IAS. Moreover, HELCOM ( 2014 ) has drawn up voluntary recommendations for
2 Examples of such EU directives are the Water Framework Directive (WFD), the Marine Strategy
Framework Directive (MSFD), the Nitrates Directive and the Urban Wastewater Directive.
3 International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ Ballast Water and Sediments;
see
http://www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/BallastWaterManagement/Pages/
BWMConvention.aspx
4 The convention enters into force 12 months after ratifi cation by 30 states, representing 35 % of
world merchant shipping tonnage; at the time of writing, in May 2015, 44 states with 32.9 % of the
tonnage have done so.
8 Science-Policy Interfaces in Baltic Sea Environmental Governance: Towards…