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for invasive alien species, see Smolarz et al. 2016 ). Such environmental problems
and risks differ from issues characterised by uncertainty in that outcome parameters
cannot be pinpointed and agreed upon. Such cases also differ from environmental
issues characterised by ambiguity in that knowledge about probabilities is not only
contested but, often, simply unknown (Stirling 2007 ).
Fig. 8.2 A categorisation of four different states of incomplete knowledge ( above ) and possible
responses to them for management procedures ( below ); based on Stirling ( 2010 ), see text for
explanation
S. Linke et al.