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scales and the importance of including non-state stakeholders (Bach and Flinders
2004 ; Joas et al. 2008 ; Oberthür and Gehring 2006 ). In this chapter, it is argued that
while global structures are important, contemporary multilevel and multi-actor
governance patterns cannot be grasped without also including the roles played by
individual countries and intergovernmental organisations. These actors are often
driven by issue-specifi c interests but also bound by restrictions in terms of resource
shortages and level of organisational skills. The focus of this chapter is on different
measures that have been taken to reduce risks of accidental oil spills and strengthen
operators’ incentives to follow rules and norms on intentional pollution. It will be
argued that the EU plays an important role both as regulator and enforcer in marine
environmental governance , namely, in between the regional (HELCOM) and the
global level (IMO/ILO). HELCOM, on the other hand, plays an important mediating role between national interests among the Baltic Sea countries and regulations
in the EU and IMO. Furthermore, it will be argued that individual countries play
important roles in specifi c governance situations, especially when they perceive
strong national interests to be at stake. Mechanisms to facilitate proactive governments taking action when it is in their interest to do so could in certain situations
contribute to improved and more sustainable governance.
The remaining part of this chapter is structured as follows. After a brief section
on ecological and economic impacts of oil spills, we have a section on measures to
reduce accidental spills and mitigate intentional spills. Examples of both command
and control as well as incentive-based measures are given. The chapter concludes
with a discussion on possible ways ahead, with a particular focus on what roles the
EU and HELCOM can play in regional governance of marine oil transportations.
6.2 Ecological and Economic Consequences of Marine
Oil Spills
The direct effects of large-scale oil spills are easy to observe. Seabirds and mammals especially may suffer and die in large quantities. Beaches may become unusable for recreation activities, and local fi sheries can be devastated for a number of
years. Laboratory studies have shown that oil can have deadly as well as sublethal
effects upon organisms. Field studies after accidents have shown signifi cant negative effects on affected ecosystems (National Research Council 2003 ). However, it
is almost impossible to predict the long-term consequences from a signifi cant oil
spill, because of at least three different types of uncertainty.
First, the location of the spill is crucial (French-McCay 2009 ). Typically, the
farther away from shores the spill occurs, the more time is available for limiting the
geographical distribution of the spill, to fence off sensitive areas and set up cooperative cleanup schemes among authorities from different countries. This normally
results in a more limited impact. Moreover, depending on the local ecological sensitivity and economic importance of the affected area, consequences may vary
considerably.
6 Oil Spills from Shipping: A Case Study of the Governance of Accidental Hazards…
scales and the importance of including non-state stakeholders (Bach and Flinders
2004 ; Joas et al. 2008 ; Oberthür and Gehring 2006 ). In this chapter, it is argued that
while global structures are important, contemporary multilevel and multi-actor
governance patterns cannot be grasped without also including the roles played by
individual countries and intergovernmental organisations. These actors are often
driven by issue-specifi c interests but also bound by restrictions in terms of resource
shortages and level of organisational skills. The focus of this chapter is on different
measures that have been taken to reduce risks of accidental oil spills and strengthen
operators’ incentives to follow rules and norms on intentional pollution. It will be
argued that the EU plays an important role both as regulator and enforcer in marine
environmental governance , namely, in between the regional (HELCOM) and the
global level (IMO/ILO). HELCOM, on the other hand, plays an important mediating role between national interests among the Baltic Sea countries and regulations
in the EU and IMO. Furthermore, it will be argued that individual countries play
important roles in specifi c governance situations, especially when they perceive
strong national interests to be at stake. Mechanisms to facilitate proactive governments taking action when it is in their interest to do so could in certain situations
contribute to improved and more sustainable governance.
The remaining part of this chapter is structured as follows. After a brief section
on ecological and economic impacts of oil spills, we have a section on measures to
reduce accidental spills and mitigate intentional spills. Examples of both command
and control as well as incentive-based measures are given. The chapter concludes
with a discussion on possible ways ahead, with a particular focus on what roles the
EU and HELCOM can play in regional governance of marine oil transportations.
6.2 Ecological and Economic Consequences of Marine
Oil Spills
The direct effects of large-scale oil spills are easy to observe. Seabirds and mammals especially may suffer and die in large quantities. Beaches may become unusable for recreation activities, and local fi sheries can be devastated for a number of
years. Laboratory studies have shown that oil can have deadly as well as sublethal
effects upon organisms. Field studies after accidents have shown signifi cant negative effects on affected ecosystems (National Research Council 2003 ). However, it
is almost impossible to predict the long-term consequences from a signifi cant oil
spill, because of at least three different types of uncertainty.
First, the location of the spill is crucial (French-McCay 2009 ). Typically, the
farther away from shores the spill occurs, the more time is available for limiting the
geographical distribution of the spill, to fence off sensitive areas and set up cooperative cleanup schemes among authorities from different countries. This normally
results in a more limited impact. Moreover, depending on the local ecological sensitivity and economic importance of the affected area, consequences may vary
considerably.
6 Oil Spills from Shipping: A Case Study of the Governance of Accidental Hazards…