112
shoes, used both as sprays and as components in garments and leather (Giesy and
Kannan 2002 ; Lindstrom et al. 2011 ). While not all perfl uorinated substances are
necessarily problematic, some are indeed so. For instance, PFOS (perfl uorooctane
sulphonate) and PFOA ( perfl uorooctanoic acid ) have at least since 2000s been targets of public policy (Renner 2001 ).
Several perfl uorinated substances belonging to the group of perfl uoroalkylated
substances (PFAS) are persistent , bioaccumulative and toxic (Scheringer et al.
2014 ). PFOS and PFOA belong to the PFAS group, are both substances in use in
themselves and common degradation products of hundreds of other perfl uorinated
substances and are extremely persistent and therefore detected around the globe,
including in the Arctic environment, in Europe and the Baltic Sea (Butt et al. 2010 ;
Holmström et al. 2005 ; Lau et al. 2007 ; Letcher et al. 2010 ; Nyberg et al. 2013b ;
Pistocchi and Loos 2009 ).
PFOS meets the criteria in the EU REACH regulation of being very persistent
and at least bioaccumulative (RPA 2004 ). It also biomagnifi es and is commonly
found in, for instance, polar bears in the Arctic (Greaves and Letcher 2013 ) as well
as in fi sh and seals in the Baltic Sea (Kratzer et al. 2011 ; Schuetze et al. 2010 ).
PFOA is also very persistent and bioaccumulates in at least air-breathing mammals,
including humans (ECHA 2013 ),
14 the fi rst fi ndings of such bioaccumulation being
reported as early as the 1970s (Lindstrom et al. 2011 ). Even if there is vast uncertainty regarding the properties and effects of most substances in the PFAS group,
PFOS has been classifi ed as toxic , and animal experiments have shown negative
effects of it on, for example, reproduction, endocrine systems, the liver, the immune
system and the nervous system (Austin et al. 2003 ; Johansson et al. 2008 ; Lau et al.
2007 ). For birds of prey, observed concentrations may be close to those where
effects in the environment might be seen (Nyberg et al. 2013b ). Humans are exposed
via water and food, such as fi sh (Borg and Håkansson 2012 ), and various hormonal
and reproductive effects and risks on humans have been shown (Lopez-Espinosa
et al. 2011 ; Lopez-Espinosa et al. 2012 ). PFOA has also been classifi ed as toxic
from different points of view, among these as a suspected carcinogen and toxic for
reproduction (UNEP 2006 ; ECHA 2013 ). Recent studies show even more worrying
signs regarding cancer (Barry et al. 2013 ).
5.5.1 EU Policy
In the EU, a process to restrict PFOS was started in 2005 by the European
Commission , based on an OECD hazard assessment as well as the EU risk assessment report under the previous existing substance programme (European
Commission 2005 ). In the following co-decision procedure, the European Parliament
proposed, agreeing across party lines, to extend the Commission’s proposal to
14 Strangely, in spite of this judgment from ECHA, the researchers reporting on HELCOM core
indicators did not consider PFOA to be bioaccumulative (Nyberg et al. 2013b ).
M. Karlsson and M. Gilek
shoes, used both as sprays and as components in garments and leather (Giesy and
Kannan 2002 ; Lindstrom et al. 2011 ). While not all perfl uorinated substances are
necessarily problematic, some are indeed so. For instance, PFOS (perfl uorooctane
sulphonate) and PFOA ( perfl uorooctanoic acid ) have at least since 2000s been targets of public policy (Renner 2001 ).
Several perfl uorinated substances belonging to the group of perfl uoroalkylated
substances (PFAS) are persistent , bioaccumulative and toxic (Scheringer et al.
2014 ). PFOS and PFOA belong to the PFAS group, are both substances in use in
themselves and common degradation products of hundreds of other perfl uorinated
substances and are extremely persistent and therefore detected around the globe,
including in the Arctic environment, in Europe and the Baltic Sea (Butt et al. 2010 ;
Holmström et al. 2005 ; Lau et al. 2007 ; Letcher et al. 2010 ; Nyberg et al. 2013b ;
Pistocchi and Loos 2009 ).
PFOS meets the criteria in the EU REACH regulation of being very persistent
and at least bioaccumulative (RPA 2004 ). It also biomagnifi es and is commonly
found in, for instance, polar bears in the Arctic (Greaves and Letcher 2013 ) as well
as in fi sh and seals in the Baltic Sea (Kratzer et al. 2011 ; Schuetze et al. 2010 ).
PFOA is also very persistent and bioaccumulates in at least air-breathing mammals,
including humans (ECHA 2013 ),
14 the fi rst fi ndings of such bioaccumulation being
reported as early as the 1970s (Lindstrom et al. 2011 ). Even if there is vast uncertainty regarding the properties and effects of most substances in the PFAS group,
PFOS has been classifi ed as toxic , and animal experiments have shown negative
effects of it on, for example, reproduction, endocrine systems, the liver, the immune
system and the nervous system (Austin et al. 2003 ; Johansson et al. 2008 ; Lau et al.
2007 ). For birds of prey, observed concentrations may be close to those where
effects in the environment might be seen (Nyberg et al. 2013b ). Humans are exposed
via water and food, such as fi sh (Borg and Håkansson 2012 ), and various hormonal
and reproductive effects and risks on humans have been shown (Lopez-Espinosa
et al. 2011 ; Lopez-Espinosa et al. 2012 ). PFOA has also been classifi ed as toxic
from different points of view, among these as a suspected carcinogen and toxic for
reproduction (UNEP 2006 ; ECHA 2013 ). Recent studies show even more worrying
signs regarding cancer (Barry et al. 2013 ).
5.5.1 EU Policy
In the EU, a process to restrict PFOS was started in 2005 by the European
Commission , based on an OECD hazard assessment as well as the EU risk assessment report under the previous existing substance programme (European
Commission 2005 ). In the following co-decision procedure, the European Parliament
proposed, agreeing across party lines, to extend the Commission’s proposal to
14 Strangely, in spite of this judgment from ECHA, the researchers reporting on HELCOM core
indicators did not consider PFOA to be bioaccumulative (Nyberg et al. 2013b ).
M. Karlsson and M. Gilek