87
in CBD Decision V/6 was also proposed as an appropriate framework for the assessment of planned action and policies with regard to biodiversity considerations for
isolated ecosystems (Genovesi and Shine 2004 ). Out of 12 principles adopted for
the application of EAM, at least 4 are of particular interest when it comes to bioinvasions in marine ecosystems . Those are decentralisation of transboundary management, preservation of native ecosystem structure and function, consideration of the
economy of the region and multi-sector involvement in the management of IAS
(Shine et al. 2000 ). However, EAM requires good multidisciplinary knowledge
about the area, something that is often not available for many marine areas. Often
the best available knowledge is not suffi cient to take fully informed decisions. Yet it
is used.
One example of a continuous and interactive step-by-step approach towards
ecosystem-based management is the global Marine Spatial Planning ( MSP ) network that has been introduced using key components of EAM (Ehler and Douvere
2009 ). Nevertheless, despite many attempts to move MSP beyond the conceptual
level, there are still diffi culties with regard to combining conservation with human
activities so that marine resources are used sustainably.
The EAM concept is present in some IAS-related EU policies. An example is
NATURA 2000 where EAM is linked to reinforcement of appropriate assessments
for NATURA 2000 sites. Moreover, the ecosystem approach is also the fl agship
concept in the most infl uential EU document on the marine environment – the
Marine Strategy Framework Directive ( MSFD ) adopted in 2008 (Bojārs 2012 ). The
MSFD seeks a comprehensive approach that would combine effective environmental protection with sustainable use of marine resources, hence addressing the needs
of society. The management framework for marine protection under MSFD is
encapsulated in the section on Marine Strategies, which ‘shall apply an ecosystembased approach to the management of human activities’ (ibid.). This provides the
legal basis that places EAM at the heart of this new obligation placed on EU Member
States to address concerns around marine management. However, the Directive
does not fully defi ne the sustainability concept nor provide measurable goals specifying future processes and outcomes required for sustainable development.
Moreover, it allows for divergent views on what sustainability encompasses and
how it can be made operational (Farmer et al. 2012 ).
The ecosystem approach is also applied in the HELCOM and OSPAR frameworks. In HELCOM BSAP , alien species constitute a factor infl uencing biodiversity loss. OSPAR has gone even further by developing strategic goals and specifi c
indicators (HELCOM 2010 ). Another important framework addressing an
ecosystem- based approach to resource management is the above-mentioned Baltic
Sea Regional Project (BSRP), prepared in collaboration with HELCOM and the
Global Environmental Facility (GEF; HELCOM 2006 ).
Several challenges connected to the implementation of EAM remain such as
varying defi nitions of the approach, lack of cooperation and stakeholder participation , communication concerns and problems with integrating knowledge-based
advice across scientifi c disciplines (Arkema et al. 2006 ; Barnes and McFadden
2007 ). In our case study, the major obstacles with EAM implementation pertained
4 Biological Invasions: A Case Study of Baltic Sea Environmental Governance
in CBD Decision V/6 was also proposed as an appropriate framework for the assessment of planned action and policies with regard to biodiversity considerations for
isolated ecosystems (Genovesi and Shine 2004 ). Out of 12 principles adopted for
the application of EAM, at least 4 are of particular interest when it comes to bioinvasions in marine ecosystems . Those are decentralisation of transboundary management, preservation of native ecosystem structure and function, consideration of the
economy of the region and multi-sector involvement in the management of IAS
(Shine et al. 2000 ). However, EAM requires good multidisciplinary knowledge
about the area, something that is often not available for many marine areas. Often
the best available knowledge is not suffi cient to take fully informed decisions. Yet it
is used.
One example of a continuous and interactive step-by-step approach towards
ecosystem-based management is the global Marine Spatial Planning ( MSP ) network that has been introduced using key components of EAM (Ehler and Douvere
2009 ). Nevertheless, despite many attempts to move MSP beyond the conceptual
level, there are still diffi culties with regard to combining conservation with human
activities so that marine resources are used sustainably.
The EAM concept is present in some IAS-related EU policies. An example is
NATURA 2000 where EAM is linked to reinforcement of appropriate assessments
for NATURA 2000 sites. Moreover, the ecosystem approach is also the fl agship
concept in the most infl uential EU document on the marine environment – the
Marine Strategy Framework Directive ( MSFD ) adopted in 2008 (Bojārs 2012 ). The
MSFD seeks a comprehensive approach that would combine effective environmental protection with sustainable use of marine resources, hence addressing the needs
of society. The management framework for marine protection under MSFD is
encapsulated in the section on Marine Strategies, which ‘shall apply an ecosystembased approach to the management of human activities’ (ibid.). This provides the
legal basis that places EAM at the heart of this new obligation placed on EU Member
States to address concerns around marine management. However, the Directive
does not fully defi ne the sustainability concept nor provide measurable goals specifying future processes and outcomes required for sustainable development.
Moreover, it allows for divergent views on what sustainability encompasses and
how it can be made operational (Farmer et al. 2012 ).
The ecosystem approach is also applied in the HELCOM and OSPAR frameworks. In HELCOM BSAP , alien species constitute a factor infl uencing biodiversity loss. OSPAR has gone even further by developing strategic goals and specifi c
indicators (HELCOM 2010 ). Another important framework addressing an
ecosystem- based approach to resource management is the above-mentioned Baltic
Sea Regional Project (BSRP), prepared in collaboration with HELCOM and the
Global Environmental Facility (GEF; HELCOM 2006 ).
Several challenges connected to the implementation of EAM remain such as
varying defi nitions of the approach, lack of cooperation and stakeholder participation , communication concerns and problems with integrating knowledge-based
advice across scientifi c disciplines (Arkema et al. 2006 ; Barnes and McFadden
2007 ). In our case study, the major obstacles with EAM implementation pertained
4 Biological Invasions: A Case Study of Baltic Sea Environmental Governance