fibers, and woods, although agricultural production is often enhanced by the application of fertilizer.
Related to ecosystem services, soils are also involved in landscapes. A landscape
is formed by the interactions among soil, topography, climate, and communities of
organisms (plants and animals). The ecosystem services provided by landscapes may
be recognized as cultural services, for example, areas for recreation and motifs in
paintings. Different landscapes are often underlain by different soils. The regulating
services offered by soils include the holding and movement of water, maintenance of
water quality, and adsorption and desorption of solutes.
Soil-supported ecosystem services contribute greatly to our survival and to
environmental sustainability. To maintain and improve our physical and cultural
health, we must understand the roles of soil in ecosystem services and develop
methods that conserve and facilitate soil functions.
1.2 Elements Important for Ecosystem Services
and Environmental Factors Affecting the Behavior
of Inorganic Constituents in Soil
As the primary producers in ecosystems, plants absorb inorganic nutrients from soil.
Plants and animals occupy the natural, agricultural, and urban landscapes formed by
soils. Hence, the behavior and cycling of nutrient elements in soils and ecosystems is
critically important. Nutrient elements (elements that are essential or beneficial to
plants and/or animals) are transferred to animals from plants through the food chain.
Therefore, feed production must meet the nutrient-element demands of animals.
Cycling of these nutrient elements is affected by environmental factors such as soil
properties, temperature, water, redox condition, carbon dioxide, and light.
1.2.1 Elements
Concentrations of more than 50 soil elements can now be determined by atomic
absorption photometry, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry, and other techniques (Yamasaki 1996, Takeda et al.
2004). Concentrations of the major soil elements, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Mn, Ti,
and P, are frequently measured. Other major elements, O, H, C, N, S, F, and Cl, exist
in soils as oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, nitrates, sulfates, sulfides, fluorides,
chlorides, and other compound forms depending on the soil properties. The major
elements in soil organic matter are C, N, S, O, and H.
The major essential elements for plants are C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and
S. Plants also require trace amounts of Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo, and Cl (Fig. 1.1)
(Marshner 1995). Ni is another essential trace element for plants (Asher 1991), and
2
1 Purpose and Scope
Related to ecosystem services, soils are also involved in landscapes. A landscape
is formed by the interactions among soil, topography, climate, and communities of
organisms (plants and animals). The ecosystem services provided by landscapes may
be recognized as cultural services, for example, areas for recreation and motifs in
paintings. Different landscapes are often underlain by different soils. The regulating
services offered by soils include the holding and movement of water, maintenance of
water quality, and adsorption and desorption of solutes.
Soil-supported ecosystem services contribute greatly to our survival and to
environmental sustainability. To maintain and improve our physical and cultural
health, we must understand the roles of soil in ecosystem services and develop
methods that conserve and facilitate soil functions.
1.2 Elements Important for Ecosystem Services
and Environmental Factors Affecting the Behavior
of Inorganic Constituents in Soil
As the primary producers in ecosystems, plants absorb inorganic nutrients from soil.
Plants and animals occupy the natural, agricultural, and urban landscapes formed by
soils. Hence, the behavior and cycling of nutrient elements in soils and ecosystems is
critically important. Nutrient elements (elements that are essential or beneficial to
plants and/or animals) are transferred to animals from plants through the food chain.
Therefore, feed production must meet the nutrient-element demands of animals.
Cycling of these nutrient elements is affected by environmental factors such as soil
properties, temperature, water, redox condition, carbon dioxide, and light.
1.2.1 Elements
Concentrations of more than 50 soil elements can now be determined by atomic
absorption photometry, X-ray fluorescence spectrometry, inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry, and other techniques (Yamasaki 1996, Takeda et al.
2004). Concentrations of the major soil elements, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Mg, Na, K, Mn, Ti,
and P, are frequently measured. Other major elements, O, H, C, N, S, F, and Cl, exist
in soils as oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, nitrates, sulfates, sulfides, fluorides,
chlorides, and other compound forms depending on the soil properties. The major
elements in soil organic matter are C, N, S, O, and H.
The major essential elements for plants are C, H, O, N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and
S. Plants also require trace amounts of Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn, B, Mo, and Cl (Fig. 1.1)
(Marshner 1995). Ni is another essential trace element for plants (Asher 1991), and
2
1 Purpose and Scope