1629
French mathematician PIERRE DE FERMAT (1601–65)
uses algebra to solve geometric problems but does not
publish his results. French mathematician and philosopher RENÉ DESCARTES (1596–1650) later developed
similar techniques and is today credited as the founder
of this approach.
1635
Italian mathematician BONAVENTURA CAVALIERI
(1598–1647) introduces a method of indivisibles for
comparing volumes (a precursor to the methods of
INTEGRAL CALCULUS) and CAVALIERI’S PRINCIPLE.
ca. 1637
FERMAT introduces modern NUMBER THEORY. He
writes a problem in the margin of a text that confounds
mathematicians for centuries. FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM
was finally solved by ANDREW WILES in 1994.
1639
French mathematician GIRARD DESARGUES (1591–1661)
publishes a treatise on his newly discovered PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY. The work is essentially ignored for
200 years.
1654
Mathematician BLAISE PASCAL (1623–62) begins a correspondence with FERMAT about questions of games of
chance. Through five consecutive letters, they together
create the theory of PROBABILITY.
1662
The ROYAL SOCIETY of London is established. British
mathematician LORD WILLIAM BROUNCKER (1620–84)
is elected as its first president.
1666
SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642–1727) develops DIFFERENTIAL and INTEGRAL CALCULUS but does not publish his
results until 1711.
1673
German mathematician GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ
(1646–1716) develops DIFFERENTIAL and INTEGRAL
CALCULUS independently of NEWTON. Leibniz begins
publishing his results in 1684, and Newton accuses him
of plagiarism. A bitter dispute between the two men
ensues, lasting four decades.
1687
Under the urging of astronomer Edmund Halley, Newton publishes Principia, today considered one of the
greatest scientific works of all time. Newton outlines
his laws of motion and the INVERSE SQUARE LAW for
gravitation.
1693
Halley compiles the first set of LIFE TABLES and makes
use of STATISTICS to analyze birth and death rates.
1696
French scholar MARQUIS DE GUILLAUME FRANÇOIS
ANTOINE L’HÔPITAL (1661–1704) publishes the first
textbook on CALCULUS.
1703
NEWTON is elected president of the ROYAL SOCIETY of
London. Eight years later, after an official investigation, the society concludes that Newton, not LEIBNIZ, is
the true inventor of CALCULUS. It is later revealed that
Newton, as president, wrote the final proclamation.
The verdict is not considered valid today.
1718
French mathematician ABRAHAM DE MOIVRE
(1667–1754) publishes Doctrine of Chances, the most
advanced text on the theory of PROBABILITY of its time.
De Moivre later develops the result today known as
STIRLING’S FORMULA.
1736
Swiss mathematician LEONHARD EULER (1707–83)
solves the SEVEN BRIDGES OF KÖNIGSBERG PROBLEM,
thereby establishing the fields of TOPOLOGY and GRAPH
THEORY. Throughout his life Euler also discovers,
among many accomplishments, the number e, his
famous formula relating the trigonometric functions to
this number, specific values of the ZETA FUNCTION, and,
in geometry, the EULER LINE. Euler also introduces the
notion of a FUNCTION and popularizes the use of the
symbol π for the ratio of the circumference of a circle
to its diameter.
1742
CHRISTIAN GOLDBACH (1690–1764) writes to EULER
posing the problem that has since become known as
GOLDBACH’S CONJECTURE.
1748
MARIA GAËTANA AGNESI (1718–99) publishes her twovolume survey of elementary and advanced mathematics.
1750
Swiss mathematician GABRIEL CRAMER (1704–52) publishes CRAMER’S RULE.
542 Appendix I
French mathematician PIERRE DE FERMAT (1601–65)
uses algebra to solve geometric problems but does not
publish his results. French mathematician and philosopher RENÉ DESCARTES (1596–1650) later developed
similar techniques and is today credited as the founder
of this approach.
1635
Italian mathematician BONAVENTURA CAVALIERI
(1598–1647) introduces a method of indivisibles for
comparing volumes (a precursor to the methods of
INTEGRAL CALCULUS) and CAVALIERI’S PRINCIPLE.
ca. 1637
FERMAT introduces modern NUMBER THEORY. He
writes a problem in the margin of a text that confounds
mathematicians for centuries. FERMAT’S LAST THEOREM
was finally solved by ANDREW WILES in 1994.
1639
French mathematician GIRARD DESARGUES (1591–1661)
publishes a treatise on his newly discovered PROJECTIVE GEOMETRY. The work is essentially ignored for
200 years.
1654
Mathematician BLAISE PASCAL (1623–62) begins a correspondence with FERMAT about questions of games of
chance. Through five consecutive letters, they together
create the theory of PROBABILITY.
1662
The ROYAL SOCIETY of London is established. British
mathematician LORD WILLIAM BROUNCKER (1620–84)
is elected as its first president.
1666
SIR ISAAC NEWTON (1642–1727) develops DIFFERENTIAL and INTEGRAL CALCULUS but does not publish his
results until 1711.
1673
German mathematician GOTTFRIED WILHELM LEIBNIZ
(1646–1716) develops DIFFERENTIAL and INTEGRAL
CALCULUS independently of NEWTON. Leibniz begins
publishing his results in 1684, and Newton accuses him
of plagiarism. A bitter dispute between the two men
ensues, lasting four decades.
1687
Under the urging of astronomer Edmund Halley, Newton publishes Principia, today considered one of the
greatest scientific works of all time. Newton outlines
his laws of motion and the INVERSE SQUARE LAW for
gravitation.
1693
Halley compiles the first set of LIFE TABLES and makes
use of STATISTICS to analyze birth and death rates.
1696
French scholar MARQUIS DE GUILLAUME FRANÇOIS
ANTOINE L’HÔPITAL (1661–1704) publishes the first
textbook on CALCULUS.
1703
NEWTON is elected president of the ROYAL SOCIETY of
London. Eight years later, after an official investigation, the society concludes that Newton, not LEIBNIZ, is
the true inventor of CALCULUS. It is later revealed that
Newton, as president, wrote the final proclamation.
The verdict is not considered valid today.
1718
French mathematician ABRAHAM DE MOIVRE
(1667–1754) publishes Doctrine of Chances, the most
advanced text on the theory of PROBABILITY of its time.
De Moivre later develops the result today known as
STIRLING’S FORMULA.
1736
Swiss mathematician LEONHARD EULER (1707–83)
solves the SEVEN BRIDGES OF KÖNIGSBERG PROBLEM,
thereby establishing the fields of TOPOLOGY and GRAPH
THEORY. Throughout his life Euler also discovers,
among many accomplishments, the number e, his
famous formula relating the trigonometric functions to
this number, specific values of the ZETA FUNCTION, and,
in geometry, the EULER LINE. Euler also introduces the
notion of a FUNCTION and popularizes the use of the
symbol π for the ratio of the circumference of a circle
to its diameter.
1742
CHRISTIAN GOLDBACH (1690–1764) writes to EULER
posing the problem that has since become known as
GOLDBACH’S CONJECTURE.
1748
MARIA GAËTANA AGNESI (1718–99) publishes her twovolume survey of elementary and advanced mathematics.
1750
Swiss mathematician GABRIEL CRAMER (1704–52) publishes CRAMER’S RULE.
542 Appendix I