Lohan, Alén-Savikko, Chen, Järvinen, Leppäkoski, Kuusniemi, and Korpisaari
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LISP totally. Indirectly, these interferences also affect LBSP: the deteriorated location estimation may affect the service quality or deny it in the case that the access to
the service is based on location;
4) Location leakage or theft [76]: this is when a user device reports a fake location; such
location information can be used to wrongly identify the user and may contribute to
identity thefts;
5) Erroneous database transfer from network to the user: this threat is valid for the location methods relying on a training database. Such a training database is typically
collected by the 5G network and relevant parts of it are then transferred to the
mobile for the positioning purpose (Figure 13.5). Errors on the communication line
can affect the accuracy of the transmitted database, and thus the accuracy and
robustness of the location;
6) Location‐tracking malware applications on the mobile device: a recent market analysis by Symantec showed that more than 3 million applications on mobile phones
could be classified as malware in 2016, which almost tripled the figures from 2015
[108]. Malware applications on mobile devices are thus increasing at a worrying
pace. Such applications can steal various vital data from the user mobile phones,
including location data. There is also the problem as to whether tracking a user location is ethical or not [12].
13.6 Main Privacy Concerns
According to [95], “privacy” is the ability of a person to control the personal information about oneself. Privacy threats refer to the limited capability or inability to control
the usage of personal data, in this case location data. The risks of losing one’s location
privacy can range from mild discomforts to serious dangers of burglary, thefts or even
loss of life. Location data and places most frequented can disclose significant personal
information, such as work and home places, attended schools, family plans (e.g. did you
visit a fertility clinic?), health problems (e.g. did you visit a unit specialized in cancer
treatment?), religious and sexual orientation (e.g. how often have you visited a certain
worship place or a certain club), and so on: [95]
1) Potential misuse of location information by LBSP or LISP or both: when the users
agree to certain distribution terms of using location‐based services and localization
engines on their mobile device; the terms are sometimes not very clear or too broad
and may allow legal misuse of user location data [87];
2) Unauthorized user tracking and other unauthorized use of location information:
when the user is giving permissions to his/her location data to LISP and LBSP, such
location data sent, for example over Internet, has a huge potential to be misused,
especially when the LISP or LBSP are not trusted players [111];
3) “Right to be forgotten”: the user location data is many times stored by the LSBP and
LISP for indefinite periods of time, which are often not transparent to users. The
right to be forgotten rule in Europe states that a person has the right to ask for
the removal of his/her personal data, when such a data is no longer necessary for the
purpose for which it had been initially collected [23,33,35]. However, the technical
solutions to reinforce such a right to be forgotten are still vulnerable to unauthorized
copying and dissemination of user data [90];
294
LISP totally. Indirectly, these interferences also affect LBSP: the deteriorated location estimation may affect the service quality or deny it in the case that the access to
the service is based on location;
4) Location leakage or theft [76]: this is when a user device reports a fake location; such
location information can be used to wrongly identify the user and may contribute to
identity thefts;
5) Erroneous database transfer from network to the user: this threat is valid for the location methods relying on a training database. Such a training database is typically
collected by the 5G network and relevant parts of it are then transferred to the
mobile for the positioning purpose (Figure 13.5). Errors on the communication line
can affect the accuracy of the transmitted database, and thus the accuracy and
robustness of the location;
6) Location‐tracking malware applications on the mobile device: a recent market analysis by Symantec showed that more than 3 million applications on mobile phones
could be classified as malware in 2016, which almost tripled the figures from 2015
[108]. Malware applications on mobile devices are thus increasing at a worrying
pace. Such applications can steal various vital data from the user mobile phones,
including location data. There is also the problem as to whether tracking a user location is ethical or not [12].
13.6 Main Privacy Concerns
According to [95], “privacy” is the ability of a person to control the personal information about oneself. Privacy threats refer to the limited capability or inability to control
the usage of personal data, in this case location data. The risks of losing one’s location
privacy can range from mild discomforts to serious dangers of burglary, thefts or even
loss of life. Location data and places most frequented can disclose significant personal
information, such as work and home places, attended schools, family plans (e.g. did you
visit a fertility clinic?), health problems (e.g. did you visit a unit specialized in cancer
treatment?), religious and sexual orientation (e.g. how often have you visited a certain
worship place or a certain club), and so on: [95]
1) Potential misuse of location information by LBSP or LISP or both: when the users
agree to certain distribution terms of using location‐based services and localization
engines on their mobile device; the terms are sometimes not very clear or too broad
and may allow legal misuse of user location data [87];
2) Unauthorized user tracking and other unauthorized use of location information:
when the user is giving permissions to his/her location data to LISP and LBSP, such
location data sent, for example over Internet, has a huge potential to be misused,
especially when the LISP or LBSP are not trusted players [111];
3) “Right to be forgotten”: the user location data is many times stored by the LSBP and
LISP for indefinite periods of time, which are often not transparent to users. The
right to be forgotten rule in Europe states that a person has the right to ask for
the removal of his/her personal data, when such a data is no longer necessary for the
purpose for which it had been initially collected [23,33,35]. However, the technical
solutions to reinforce such a right to be forgotten are still vulnerable to unauthorized
copying and dissemination of user data [90];