3 Natural Attenuation of Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic …
73
that of acetaminophen (9822 ng/L), was reported downstream of river Fuss (Burns
et al. 2018). No specific trends in variation in concentration of acetaminophen were
noticed from upstream to downstream within the river.
Among the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), biotransformation
of diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen has been extensively studied. Diclofenac at
an initial concentration of 100 μg/L was reported to be transformed by 97% within
five days by previously acclimatized native microbial community present in the river
water sample (Paje et al. 2002). Seasonal variation in diclofenac biotransformation
was studied by Lawrence et al. (2007), where no significant increase in biofilm
(algal, bacterial, and cyanobacteria) thickness was seen during the spring season
over a concentration range of 10–100 μg/L. However, the cyanobacterial biomass
was significantly reduced during summer. Based on Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH), it was found that the abundance of Beta, and Gamma-Proteobacteria,
and Cytophaga-Flavobacterium populations were significantly increased at an initial
concentration of 100 μg/L. Ibuprofen comes under the category of easily biodegradable pharmaceuticals. Attempts were made to degrade ibuprofen over a concentration
range of 20 μg/L to 10 mg/L in river water. While complete biotransformation of
ibuprofen was reported to occur within a few hours at a low concentration, several
days to several weeks was the time reported for the complete elimination of ibuprofen
present at a higher concentration when glucose was used as a carbon source (Chen
and Rosazza 1994). Lin et al. (2006b) reported biotransformation of ibuprofen in
the laboratory-based on the microbial biofilms collected from river water. Within
four to eight days of incubation, biotransformation was noticed. Similarly, Trametes
versicolor, Irpex lacteus, Ganoderma lucidum, and Phanerochaete chrysosporium
were able to degrade ibuprofen at an initial concentration of 10 mg/L within seven
days (Marco-Urrea et al. 2009). Alpha- and Gamma-Proteobacteria were reported to
degrade naproxen at an initial concentration of 6 mg/L. However, the degradation was
quite slow, and only 28% removal was achieved at the end of 35 days. However, the
same compound was co-metabolically removed up to 78 and 40% in the presence of
glucose and phenol, respectively (Wojcieszy´ nska et al. 2014). The biotransformation
of ibuprofen, ofloxacin, venlafaxine, irbesartan, and gemfibrozil was further studied
in river water samples where these samples were incubated for a period of 65 days.
After 44 days, 40% removal of ofloxacin was observed. and no significant removal
was observed for the remaining pharmaceuticals (Boix et al. 2016).
Only limited literature on biotransformation of fluoxetine is reported. The drug
is reported to have a half-life in the range of six to ten days in natural surface
water when present at an initial concentration of 1 mg/L (Nödler et al. 2014). The
most frequently detected antiepileptic drug, carbamazepine, is resistant to degradation and is persistent in nature. It was also reported to substantially reduce the
bacterial biomass in a riverine biofilm (Lawrence et al. 2005). Biotransformation of
several pharmaceuticals belonging to diverse groups, such as bezafibrate, clofibric
acid, ibuprofen, diclofenac, naproxen, metoprolol, propranolol, sulfamethoxazole,
and sotalol, along a 12.5 km long river stretch was studied by Kunkel and Radke
(2012). Compared to the phototransformation rate, the biotransformation rate was
negligible and was restricted to the hyporheic zone only. In contrast, clofibric acid
73
that of acetaminophen (9822 ng/L), was reported downstream of river Fuss (Burns
et al. 2018). No specific trends in variation in concentration of acetaminophen were
noticed from upstream to downstream within the river.
Among the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID), biotransformation
of diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen has been extensively studied. Diclofenac at
an initial concentration of 100 μg/L was reported to be transformed by 97% within
five days by previously acclimatized native microbial community present in the river
water sample (Paje et al. 2002). Seasonal variation in diclofenac biotransformation
was studied by Lawrence et al. (2007), where no significant increase in biofilm
(algal, bacterial, and cyanobacteria) thickness was seen during the spring season
over a concentration range of 10–100 μg/L. However, the cyanobacterial biomass
was significantly reduced during summer. Based on Fluorescent in Situ Hybridization (FISH), it was found that the abundance of Beta, and Gamma-Proteobacteria,
and Cytophaga-Flavobacterium populations were significantly increased at an initial
concentration of 100 μg/L. Ibuprofen comes under the category of easily biodegradable pharmaceuticals. Attempts were made to degrade ibuprofen over a concentration
range of 20 μg/L to 10 mg/L in river water. While complete biotransformation of
ibuprofen was reported to occur within a few hours at a low concentration, several
days to several weeks was the time reported for the complete elimination of ibuprofen
present at a higher concentration when glucose was used as a carbon source (Chen
and Rosazza 1994). Lin et al. (2006b) reported biotransformation of ibuprofen in
the laboratory-based on the microbial biofilms collected from river water. Within
four to eight days of incubation, biotransformation was noticed. Similarly, Trametes
versicolor, Irpex lacteus, Ganoderma lucidum, and Phanerochaete chrysosporium
were able to degrade ibuprofen at an initial concentration of 10 mg/L within seven
days (Marco-Urrea et al. 2009). Alpha- and Gamma-Proteobacteria were reported to
degrade naproxen at an initial concentration of 6 mg/L. However, the degradation was
quite slow, and only 28% removal was achieved at the end of 35 days. However, the
same compound was co-metabolically removed up to 78 and 40% in the presence of
glucose and phenol, respectively (Wojcieszy´ nska et al. 2014). The biotransformation
of ibuprofen, ofloxacin, venlafaxine, irbesartan, and gemfibrozil was further studied
in river water samples where these samples were incubated for a period of 65 days.
After 44 days, 40% removal of ofloxacin was observed. and no significant removal
was observed for the remaining pharmaceuticals (Boix et al. 2016).
Only limited literature on biotransformation of fluoxetine is reported. The drug
is reported to have a half-life in the range of six to ten days in natural surface
water when present at an initial concentration of 1 mg/L (Nödler et al. 2014). The
most frequently detected antiepileptic drug, carbamazepine, is resistant to degradation and is persistent in nature. It was also reported to substantially reduce the
bacterial biomass in a riverine biofilm (Lawrence et al. 2005). Biotransformation of
several pharmaceuticals belonging to diverse groups, such as bezafibrate, clofibric
acid, ibuprofen, diclofenac, naproxen, metoprolol, propranolol, sulfamethoxazole,
and sotalol, along a 12.5 km long river stretch was studied by Kunkel and Radke
(2012). Compared to the phototransformation rate, the biotransformation rate was
negligible and was restricted to the hyporheic zone only. In contrast, clofibric acid