1 Pharmaceuticals, Personal Care Products, and Artificial …
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1.6 Utility of PPCPs and ASs as Anthropogenic
Markers/Tracers
PPCPs and ASs have been utilized as markers and tracers of specific sources, to
characterize local hydrogeology and groundwater pollution in detail (Kuroda et al.
2012; Lapworth et al. 2012; McCance et al. 2018; Stuart et al. 2014; Van Stempvoort
et al. 2011). Many Asian studies have suggested various PPCPs and ASs as suitable
markers/tracers in groundwater (Kuroda et al. 2012; Lapworth et al. 2018; Lee et al.
2019; Nakada et al. 2008; Sharma et al. 2019; Tran et al. 2014a, b; Watanabe et al.
2016; Yang et al. 2018). However, the appropriate markers appear to differ with the
specific country and study site, likely reflecting varying usage and environmental
fate. Carbamazepine, crotamiton, and caffeine, for example, have been suggested
as sewage markers in the groundwater in Japan (Kuroda et al. 2012; Nakada et al.
2008); whereas, in Singapore, crotamiton was rarely detected, and caffeine was frequently detected in background groundwater with no known wastewater sources in
the catchment. Alternatively, acetaminophen, carbamazepine, and salicylic acid were
suggested as suitable PPCP markers of raw wastewater in the groundwater in Singapore (Tran et al. 2014b). In Korea, carbofuran, sulfathiazole, sulfamethoxazole,
and oxfendazole were proposed as indicators of potential groundwater contamination from agricultural activities (Lee et al. 2019). In the Ganges River Basin, India,
ketoprofen, DEET, and caffeine have been suggested as markers of wastewater in
surface and groundwater (Sharma et al. 2019). With regard to ASs, acesulfame is
commonly suggested as a persistent marker of wastewater, as it occurs ubiquitously
in China (Yang et al. 2018), Korea (Lee et al. 2019), Singapore (Tran et al. 2014a),
and Vietnam (Watanabe et al. 2016). Likewise, sucralose is suggested as a similar
marker in India (Sharma et al. 2019) and China (Yang et al. 2018) and was utilized to
detect trace river water infiltration into deep aquifers in the Ganges River Basin (Lapworth et al. 2018). Cyclamate and saccharin have also been ubiquitously detected
in Singapore (Tran et al. 2014a) and China (Yang et al. 2018). The identification of
different markers for the respective sources in different regions would require further
investigation.
1.7 Risk Assessment for Human Health and Aquatic
Organisms
Assessments of the risk from PPCPs and ASs in groundwater, to human health and
aquatic organisms, have been performed in China (Jiang et al. 2019; Li et al. 2015;
Peng et al. 2014; Xiang et al. 2018; Yao et al. 2017) and India (Fick et al. 2009;
Sharma et al. 2019). In many studies, the risk is evaluated by calculating the risk
quotient (RQ), which is the ratio of environmental concentration to PNEC (predicted
no effect concentration). The risk is classified into three levels: RQ 0.01–0.1, low
risk; RQ 0.1–1, medium risk; and RQ > 1, high risk (Hernando et al. 2006). The study
29
1.6 Utility of PPCPs and ASs as Anthropogenic
Markers/Tracers
PPCPs and ASs have been utilized as markers and tracers of specific sources, to
characterize local hydrogeology and groundwater pollution in detail (Kuroda et al.
2012; Lapworth et al. 2012; McCance et al. 2018; Stuart et al. 2014; Van Stempvoort
et al. 2011). Many Asian studies have suggested various PPCPs and ASs as suitable
markers/tracers in groundwater (Kuroda et al. 2012; Lapworth et al. 2018; Lee et al.
2019; Nakada et al. 2008; Sharma et al. 2019; Tran et al. 2014a, b; Watanabe et al.
2016; Yang et al. 2018). However, the appropriate markers appear to differ with the
specific country and study site, likely reflecting varying usage and environmental
fate. Carbamazepine, crotamiton, and caffeine, for example, have been suggested
as sewage markers in the groundwater in Japan (Kuroda et al. 2012; Nakada et al.
2008); whereas, in Singapore, crotamiton was rarely detected, and caffeine was frequently detected in background groundwater with no known wastewater sources in
the catchment. Alternatively, acetaminophen, carbamazepine, and salicylic acid were
suggested as suitable PPCP markers of raw wastewater in the groundwater in Singapore (Tran et al. 2014b). In Korea, carbofuran, sulfathiazole, sulfamethoxazole,
and oxfendazole were proposed as indicators of potential groundwater contamination from agricultural activities (Lee et al. 2019). In the Ganges River Basin, India,
ketoprofen, DEET, and caffeine have been suggested as markers of wastewater in
surface and groundwater (Sharma et al. 2019). With regard to ASs, acesulfame is
commonly suggested as a persistent marker of wastewater, as it occurs ubiquitously
in China (Yang et al. 2018), Korea (Lee et al. 2019), Singapore (Tran et al. 2014a),
and Vietnam (Watanabe et al. 2016). Likewise, sucralose is suggested as a similar
marker in India (Sharma et al. 2019) and China (Yang et al. 2018) and was utilized to
detect trace river water infiltration into deep aquifers in the Ganges River Basin (Lapworth et al. 2018). Cyclamate and saccharin have also been ubiquitously detected
in Singapore (Tran et al. 2014a) and China (Yang et al. 2018). The identification of
different markers for the respective sources in different regions would require further
investigation.
1.7 Risk Assessment for Human Health and Aquatic
Organisms
Assessments of the risk from PPCPs and ASs in groundwater, to human health and
aquatic organisms, have been performed in China (Jiang et al. 2019; Li et al. 2015;
Peng et al. 2014; Xiang et al. 2018; Yao et al. 2017) and India (Fick et al. 2009;
Sharma et al. 2019). In many studies, the risk is evaluated by calculating the risk
quotient (RQ), which is the ratio of environmental concentration to PNEC (predicted
no effect concentration). The risk is classified into three levels: RQ 0.01–0.1, low
risk; RQ 0.1–1, medium risk; and RQ > 1, high risk (Hernando et al. 2006). The study