1 Pharmaceuticals, Personal Care Products, and Artificial …
17
and 0.7 ng/L for carbamazepine) were two to three orders of magnitude lower than
those in raw wastewater samples measured in the same study. Artificial sweeteners showed lesser detection frequency (cyclamate, 48%; acesulfame, 44%; saccharin, 36%) with lower groundwater concentrations (e.g., maximum concentration of
cyclamate: 730 ng/L) than the PPCPs.
In the background groundwater samples, DEET and caffeine showed high detection frequency (100% and 80%, respectively) and median concentrations (67.5 ng/L
and 34.6 ng/L, respectively), similarly to the groundwater in sewered catchments.
The other PPCPs and artificial sweeteners were not detected. Therefore, the authors
suggested that acetaminophen, carbamazepine, salicylic acid, acesulfame, cyclamate,
and saccharin were suitable markers of raw wastewater in the groundwater.
1.3.6 Vietnam
In Hanoi, ten groundwater samples were surveyed for 58 PPCPs (Kuroda et al.
2015). Among the samples, only three groundwaters were positive for pharmaceuticals: specifically, caffeine, lincomycin, and carbamazepine. Caffeine was the most
frequently detected (3/10, 30%), with concentrations of 57–78 ng/L. Lincomycin
and carbamazepine were detected in two and one samples, respectively, with concentrations of 0.13–2.1 ng/L. On the basis of hydrogeological and hydrochemical
studies conducted at the same study sites, the source of PPCPs in the groundwaters
was inferred to be the neighborhood pond water (Kuroda et al. 2017a, b; Kuroda
et al. 2015).
Duong et al. (2015) analyzed 940 organic pollutants in groundwater in Hanoi and
Ho Chi Minh City, using the same screening analysis as Li et al. (2016) and Kong
et al. (2016). Among the 19 PPCPs analyzed, a pharmaceutical (caffeine) and three
PCPs (L-menthol, squalane, and DEET) were detected. L-menthol was the most
frequently detected (22 samples out of 44), followed by squalane (14), DEET (7),
and caffeine (2). The two PPCPs were abundantly detected in the surface waters of
Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Duong et al. 2014). In one Hanoi well, the maximum
caffeine concentration was very high for groundwater, at 2.7 μg/L, one-tenth that of
the raw wastewater in Hanoi (Kuroda et al. 2015). Therefore, the observed presence
of caffeine in two wells likely reflects the direct entry of leachate from surface water,
sewage canals, or underground septic tanks (Duong et al. 2015).
Watanabe et al. (2016) investigated the occurrence of five artificial sweeteners
(acesulfame, aspartame, cyclamate, saccharin, and sucralose) and five X-ray contrast media (iopamidol, iohexol, diatrizoic acid, iopromide, and metrizoic acid) in
the groundwaters of Hanoi, Haiphong, and the Halong Bay area. In those groundwater samples, artificial sweeteners were detected at a maximum of 130 ng/L for
acesulfame, which was comparable to the levels in WWTP effluents in Hanoi (150–
210 ng/L, median 190 ng/L) and several times lower than in the pond and river
waters in the urban area (240–890 ng/L). Interestingly, elevated groundwater concentrations of artificial sweeteners were found only in suburban and rural areas,
17
and 0.7 ng/L for carbamazepine) were two to three orders of magnitude lower than
those in raw wastewater samples measured in the same study. Artificial sweeteners showed lesser detection frequency (cyclamate, 48%; acesulfame, 44%; saccharin, 36%) with lower groundwater concentrations (e.g., maximum concentration of
cyclamate: 730 ng/L) than the PPCPs.
In the background groundwater samples, DEET and caffeine showed high detection frequency (100% and 80%, respectively) and median concentrations (67.5 ng/L
and 34.6 ng/L, respectively), similarly to the groundwater in sewered catchments.
The other PPCPs and artificial sweeteners were not detected. Therefore, the authors
suggested that acetaminophen, carbamazepine, salicylic acid, acesulfame, cyclamate,
and saccharin were suitable markers of raw wastewater in the groundwater.
1.3.6 Vietnam
In Hanoi, ten groundwater samples were surveyed for 58 PPCPs (Kuroda et al.
2015). Among the samples, only three groundwaters were positive for pharmaceuticals: specifically, caffeine, lincomycin, and carbamazepine. Caffeine was the most
frequently detected (3/10, 30%), with concentrations of 57–78 ng/L. Lincomycin
and carbamazepine were detected in two and one samples, respectively, with concentrations of 0.13–2.1 ng/L. On the basis of hydrogeological and hydrochemical
studies conducted at the same study sites, the source of PPCPs in the groundwaters
was inferred to be the neighborhood pond water (Kuroda et al. 2017a, b; Kuroda
et al. 2015).
Duong et al. (2015) analyzed 940 organic pollutants in groundwater in Hanoi and
Ho Chi Minh City, using the same screening analysis as Li et al. (2016) and Kong
et al. (2016). Among the 19 PPCPs analyzed, a pharmaceutical (caffeine) and three
PCPs (L-menthol, squalane, and DEET) were detected. L-menthol was the most
frequently detected (22 samples out of 44), followed by squalane (14), DEET (7),
and caffeine (2). The two PPCPs were abundantly detected in the surface waters of
Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City (Duong et al. 2014). In one Hanoi well, the maximum
caffeine concentration was very high for groundwater, at 2.7 μg/L, one-tenth that of
the raw wastewater in Hanoi (Kuroda et al. 2015). Therefore, the observed presence
of caffeine in two wells likely reflects the direct entry of leachate from surface water,
sewage canals, or underground septic tanks (Duong et al. 2015).
Watanabe et al. (2016) investigated the occurrence of five artificial sweeteners
(acesulfame, aspartame, cyclamate, saccharin, and sucralose) and five X-ray contrast media (iopamidol, iohexol, diatrizoic acid, iopromide, and metrizoic acid) in
the groundwaters of Hanoi, Haiphong, and the Halong Bay area. In those groundwater samples, artificial sweeteners were detected at a maximum of 130 ng/L for
acesulfame, which was comparable to the levels in WWTP effluents in Hanoi (150–
210 ng/L, median 190 ng/L) and several times lower than in the pond and river
waters in the urban area (240–890 ng/L). Interestingly, elevated groundwater concentrations of artificial sweeteners were found only in suburban and rural areas,