14 Antibiotic Resistance, Its Health Impacts and Advancements …
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(Novo and Manaia 2010), respectively. Tong et al. (2019) reported that horizontal
gene transfer (HGT) occurs in observed ARGs in six municipal WWTPs in the aerated tanks, while anoxic tanks alleviated the ARGs. Mahfouz et al. (2018) studied the
entire gene sets of E. coli strains in clinics and WWTPs which did not show any variance in the influent or the effluent. Therefore, it can be concluded that conventional
WWTPs declines the concentration of microorganisms, while the resistivity of bacteria toward antibiotics cannot be diminished. Moreover, the municipal pan-genome
is substantial than alike and same size of hospital pan-genome due to attainable HGT
in wastewater.
14.3.3 Advanced Membrane Bioreactor Treatment
Employing alternative technologies like membrane bioreactors (MBRs) provides a
feasible substitute to remove ARB and ARGs from wastewaters. For example, Du
et al. (2015) found decline in tetracycline resistant genes (viz., tetG, tetW, tetX) and
sul1 genes by N5 log unit gene copies/100 mL in a MBR (0.1–0.4 μm pore size).
Munir et al. (2011) reported 1–3 log unit gene copies/100 mL more removal efficiency of ARGs in MBR than conventional wastewater treatments. Moreover, 3–5 log
decline of tetracycline and sulfonamide resistant genes CFU/100 mL), respectively,
was delineated. E. coli bacteria that are non-resistant or wild type, more elevated
removal efficiencies, viz., N6 log units, were reported for MBR treatment (Luca et al.
2013; Marti et al. 2011). More research is suggested to corroborate the delineated
MBR treatment process for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) removal efficiencies to
interpret the basic principal. Membranes for MF are formulated to minimize inorganic particles and organic load/compounds and vary in size (viz., 0.1–1 μm). On
the other hand, UF with pore size 0.01–0.1 μm, most microorganisms (bacteria and
viruses), can also be retained. NF, with membrane pore size 0.3–2 kDa and reverse
osmosis (RO) with size up to 100 Da, is frequently solicited for water treatment where
the quality demand for water is high (e.g., drinking purpose) and are competent to
remove impurities like bacteria, viruses and dissolved ions. Breazeal et al. (2013)
revealed a hefty reliance of ARG removal on the membrane pore size of MF, UF
and MF, for the gene bla TEM with ~1 log unit gene copies/100 mL in the pore size
of 0.45, 0.1 μm, 1.7 log units in 100 kDa, 4.7 log units for 10 kDa and N 5.7 log
units for 1 kDa, respectively. The authors of these reports proposed the link of ARGs
removal to DNA-colloid interactions.
Le et al. (2018) elaborated that the antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, azithromycin,
amoxicillin, chloramphenicol, minocycline, meropenem, vancomycin, oxytetracycline and sulfamethazine had greatest removal efficiencies by MBR or conventional activated sludge (CAS) treatments with median value >70%, while antibiotics like trimethoprim and lincomycin were unmanageable in CAS (~removal efficiency <50%). ARB in the secondary effluent of the CAS set-up abated as compared to the influent (i.e., lesser by 2–3 times), and ARB was absent in the secondary effluent of the MBR. Furthermore, ARGs in the same varied from less than
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(Novo and Manaia 2010), respectively. Tong et al. (2019) reported that horizontal
gene transfer (HGT) occurs in observed ARGs in six municipal WWTPs in the aerated tanks, while anoxic tanks alleviated the ARGs. Mahfouz et al. (2018) studied the
entire gene sets of E. coli strains in clinics and WWTPs which did not show any variance in the influent or the effluent. Therefore, it can be concluded that conventional
WWTPs declines the concentration of microorganisms, while the resistivity of bacteria toward antibiotics cannot be diminished. Moreover, the municipal pan-genome
is substantial than alike and same size of hospital pan-genome due to attainable HGT
in wastewater.
14.3.3 Advanced Membrane Bioreactor Treatment
Employing alternative technologies like membrane bioreactors (MBRs) provides a
feasible substitute to remove ARB and ARGs from wastewaters. For example, Du
et al. (2015) found decline in tetracycline resistant genes (viz., tetG, tetW, tetX) and
sul1 genes by N5 log unit gene copies/100 mL in a MBR (0.1–0.4 μm pore size).
Munir et al. (2011) reported 1–3 log unit gene copies/100 mL more removal efficiency of ARGs in MBR than conventional wastewater treatments. Moreover, 3–5 log
decline of tetracycline and sulfonamide resistant genes CFU/100 mL), respectively,
was delineated. E. coli bacteria that are non-resistant or wild type, more elevated
removal efficiencies, viz., N6 log units, were reported for MBR treatment (Luca et al.
2013; Marti et al. 2011). More research is suggested to corroborate the delineated
MBR treatment process for antimicrobial resistance (AMR) removal efficiencies to
interpret the basic principal. Membranes for MF are formulated to minimize inorganic particles and organic load/compounds and vary in size (viz., 0.1–1 μm). On
the other hand, UF with pore size 0.01–0.1 μm, most microorganisms (bacteria and
viruses), can also be retained. NF, with membrane pore size 0.3–2 kDa and reverse
osmosis (RO) with size up to 100 Da, is frequently solicited for water treatment where
the quality demand for water is high (e.g., drinking purpose) and are competent to
remove impurities like bacteria, viruses and dissolved ions. Breazeal et al. (2013)
revealed a hefty reliance of ARG removal on the membrane pore size of MF, UF
and MF, for the gene bla TEM with ~1 log unit gene copies/100 mL in the pore size
of 0.45, 0.1 μm, 1.7 log units in 100 kDa, 4.7 log units for 10 kDa and N 5.7 log
units for 1 kDa, respectively. The authors of these reports proposed the link of ARGs
removal to DNA-colloid interactions.
Le et al. (2018) elaborated that the antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, azithromycin,
amoxicillin, chloramphenicol, minocycline, meropenem, vancomycin, oxytetracycline and sulfamethazine had greatest removal efficiencies by MBR or conventional activated sludge (CAS) treatments with median value >70%, while antibiotics like trimethoprim and lincomycin were unmanageable in CAS (~removal efficiency <50%). ARB in the secondary effluent of the CAS set-up abated as compared to the influent (i.e., lesser by 2–3 times), and ARB was absent in the secondary effluent of the MBR. Furthermore, ARGs in the same varied from less than