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R. Kumar et al.
or disposed of in garbage has been reported by Tong et al. (2011a, b). For instance,
ciprofloxacin (CIP) is generally employed to cure bacterial infection and is often
found at high concentrations in secondary effluent, pharmaceutical industry wastewater (6.5–31 mg L
−1 ) and hospital wastewater (10–200 μg L
−1 ) (Larsson et al. 2007;
Tran et al. 2018). It has been reported that CIP causes the occurrence and transfer of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in microbes in the environment (Martínez
2008; Zhang et al. 2013; Turolla et al. 2018). However, ARGs are a part of pristine
environment as well as human influenced systems, and therefore, background and
baseline concentrations need to be well studied before concluding impact due to
anthropogenic use (Durso et al. 2012; Rothrock et al. 2016). From past few decades,
reports on wastewater traits have attracted attentiveness toward the appearance of a
number of newly discovered substances of anthropogenic origin. They are also newly
found in waste water treatment plant (WWTP) effluents, natural surface waters, sediments, sludge, water used for drinking and even in groundwater. Moreover, they
are thought to invoke the evolution of ARGs in soil microbiota (Gogoi et al. 2018).
Different techniques, viz., chlorination, biodegradation, photolysis, ozonation and
adsorption processes, are applied for the elimination of antibiotics from wastewater
(Ikehata et al. 2006; Navalon et al. 2008; Jiao et al. 2008; Yang et al. 2012a, b;
Álvarez-Torrellas et al. 2016). While, the motive of typical drinking water treatment
is assuring safety of water for human use and is free from physical, chemical and
microbial contaminations, viz., suspended particles, heavy metals and pathogenic
microbes, respectively. These treatment plants are mostly not planned to remove
ARGs and can even stimulate the occurrence, dispersal and transfer of antibiotic
resistance bacteria (ARBs) via horizontal gene transfer, thereby, elevating health
risk in human (Sanganyado and Gwenzi 2019). Although these antibiotics, ARBs
and ARGs, have entered the environment for several decades now, but inquisition on
their harmful effects on aquatic organisms have begun only recently. A huge number
of (>160) variety of pharmaceuticals have been investigated in aquatic systems at
minute quantities, generally in the range of ng L
−1 to μg L
−1 (Kummerer 2010).
The antibiotics possess antibacterial property which imparts harmful impact not
only on aquatic but terrestrial organisms too and also on human health. The occurrence of antibiotics in open environment is now a serious matter of concern among
the global scientist’s community, engineers, as well as the civilians. The presence of
trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) with certain biologically active compounds can
largely affect the aquatic ecology and hence should be addressed (Clara et al. 2012;
Luo et al. 2014; Dong et al. 2015; Tran et al. 2018). Other noteworthy impact is the
development and multiplication of antibiotics resistance microorganisms in the environment (Halling-Sørensen et al. 2000; Martínez 2008). ARBs are reported to alter
the normal functioning of natural aquatic ecosystems and affect processes such as
nitrification (Costanzo et al. 2005). The toxic effect of such antibiotics were studied
by Gonzalez-Pleiter et al. (2016), and the adverse effects of various such compounds
were observed on lower organisms further, emphasizing that proper monitoring and
regulation standards needs to be employed for effluent discharge.
There is very little information about the eco-toxicological effects of antibiotics on
aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Therefore, this chapter mainly deals with the health
R. Kumar et al.
or disposed of in garbage has been reported by Tong et al. (2011a, b). For instance,
ciprofloxacin (CIP) is generally employed to cure bacterial infection and is often
found at high concentrations in secondary effluent, pharmaceutical industry wastewater (6.5–31 mg L
−1 ) and hospital wastewater (10–200 μg L
−1 ) (Larsson et al. 2007;
Tran et al. 2018). It has been reported that CIP causes the occurrence and transfer of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in microbes in the environment (Martínez
2008; Zhang et al. 2013; Turolla et al. 2018). However, ARGs are a part of pristine
environment as well as human influenced systems, and therefore, background and
baseline concentrations need to be well studied before concluding impact due to
anthropogenic use (Durso et al. 2012; Rothrock et al. 2016). From past few decades,
reports on wastewater traits have attracted attentiveness toward the appearance of a
number of newly discovered substances of anthropogenic origin. They are also newly
found in waste water treatment plant (WWTP) effluents, natural surface waters, sediments, sludge, water used for drinking and even in groundwater. Moreover, they
are thought to invoke the evolution of ARGs in soil microbiota (Gogoi et al. 2018).
Different techniques, viz., chlorination, biodegradation, photolysis, ozonation and
adsorption processes, are applied for the elimination of antibiotics from wastewater
(Ikehata et al. 2006; Navalon et al. 2008; Jiao et al. 2008; Yang et al. 2012a, b;
Álvarez-Torrellas et al. 2016). While, the motive of typical drinking water treatment
is assuring safety of water for human use and is free from physical, chemical and
microbial contaminations, viz., suspended particles, heavy metals and pathogenic
microbes, respectively. These treatment plants are mostly not planned to remove
ARGs and can even stimulate the occurrence, dispersal and transfer of antibiotic
resistance bacteria (ARBs) via horizontal gene transfer, thereby, elevating health
risk in human (Sanganyado and Gwenzi 2019). Although these antibiotics, ARBs
and ARGs, have entered the environment for several decades now, but inquisition on
their harmful effects on aquatic organisms have begun only recently. A huge number
of (>160) variety of pharmaceuticals have been investigated in aquatic systems at
minute quantities, generally in the range of ng L
−1 to μg L
−1 (Kummerer 2010).
The antibiotics possess antibacterial property which imparts harmful impact not
only on aquatic but terrestrial organisms too and also on human health. The occurrence of antibiotics in open environment is now a serious matter of concern among
the global scientist’s community, engineers, as well as the civilians. The presence of
trace organic contaminants (TrOCs) with certain biologically active compounds can
largely affect the aquatic ecology and hence should be addressed (Clara et al. 2012;
Luo et al. 2014; Dong et al. 2015; Tran et al. 2018). Other noteworthy impact is the
development and multiplication of antibiotics resistance microorganisms in the environment (Halling-Sørensen et al. 2000; Martínez 2008). ARBs are reported to alter
the normal functioning of natural aquatic ecosystems and affect processes such as
nitrification (Costanzo et al. 2005). The toxic effect of such antibiotics were studied
by Gonzalez-Pleiter et al. (2016), and the adverse effects of various such compounds
were observed on lower organisms further, emphasizing that proper monitoring and
regulation standards needs to be employed for effluent discharge.
There is very little information about the eco-toxicological effects of antibiotics on
aquatic and terrestrial organisms. Therefore, this chapter mainly deals with the health