1 Pharmaceuticals, Personal Care Products, and Artificial …
5
total, 23 studies from six countries were summarized for review (Table 1.1). Most of
the studies were conducted in China (10), followed by India (4), Japan (3), Vietnam
(3), Singapore (2), and Korea (1).
The number of investigated groundwater sites per study ranged widely (from 3
to 50), as did the number of samples per study (3–148). We regarded spring water
samples as groundwater samples because the properties of spring waters usually
reflect those of nearby groundwaters. In 12 of the 23 studies (52%), information
on the depth of groundwater wells or aquifers was obtained, with the latter ranging
from very shallow (up to 2 m below ground level; hereafter, mbgl) to deep (up
to 500 mbgl). In the other studies, where depth information was not provided, it
appeared that most of the surveyed groundwater was shallow (<50 mbgl), based on
the qualitative information in the papers.
The number of analyzed PPCPs and ASs also varied greatly, from 3 to 79
PPCPs and up to 7 ASs. Most of the studies employed targeted analysis with liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) or gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS). In the three studies, however, screening analysis of up
to more than 1300 compounds (including 79 PPCPs) was employed, using GC-MS
with automated identification and quantification database system (AIQS), and liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) (Duong et al.
2015; Kong et al. 2016; Li et al. 2016). As a general tendency, the number of detected
PPCPs and ASs in the groundwater (up to 29 pharmaceuticals and 4 ASs) was less
than the number of measured PPCPs and ASs in the respective studies. This would
suggest that the groundwater was less contaminated, compared to surface waters, for
example, because of the more direct pathways for the transport of contaminants in
the case of the latter (e.g., direct discharge of wastewater effluent), as well as other
factors such as differences in environmental fate and transport processes (e.g., sorption, volatilization, degradation, etc.), as evidenced by European (Loos et al. 2010)
and US studies (Barnes et al. 2008; Focazio et al. 2008).
1.3 Country-by-Country Analysis
1.3.1 China
The occurrence of PPCPs and ASs in Chinese groundwater has been reported in 10
studies, the most among Asian countries. The geological scale of the groundwater
studies in China varied widely, from the national (Li et al. 2015) and regional scale
(Kong et al. 2016; Li et al. 2016) to watershed (Gan et al. 2013; Jiang et al. 2019;
Xiang et al. 2018; Yang et al. 2018) and local scale (Peng et al. 2014; Tong et al.
2014; Yao et al. 2018). Dong et al. (2018) summarized the occurrence of a wide
range of CECs, including PPCPs and ASs, in groundwater in China. This chapter
summarizes seven further papers that were not discussed in Dong et al. (2018).
5
total, 23 studies from six countries were summarized for review (Table 1.1). Most of
the studies were conducted in China (10), followed by India (4), Japan (3), Vietnam
(3), Singapore (2), and Korea (1).
The number of investigated groundwater sites per study ranged widely (from 3
to 50), as did the number of samples per study (3–148). We regarded spring water
samples as groundwater samples because the properties of spring waters usually
reflect those of nearby groundwaters. In 12 of the 23 studies (52%), information
on the depth of groundwater wells or aquifers was obtained, with the latter ranging
from very shallow (up to 2 m below ground level; hereafter, mbgl) to deep (up
to 500 mbgl). In the other studies, where depth information was not provided, it
appeared that most of the surveyed groundwater was shallow (<50 mbgl), based on
the qualitative information in the papers.
The number of analyzed PPCPs and ASs also varied greatly, from 3 to 79
PPCPs and up to 7 ASs. Most of the studies employed targeted analysis with liquid
chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) or gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS). In the three studies, however, screening analysis of up
to more than 1300 compounds (including 79 PPCPs) was employed, using GC-MS
with automated identification and quantification database system (AIQS), and liquid chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-TOF-MS) (Duong et al.
2015; Kong et al. 2016; Li et al. 2016). As a general tendency, the number of detected
PPCPs and ASs in the groundwater (up to 29 pharmaceuticals and 4 ASs) was less
than the number of measured PPCPs and ASs in the respective studies. This would
suggest that the groundwater was less contaminated, compared to surface waters, for
example, because of the more direct pathways for the transport of contaminants in
the case of the latter (e.g., direct discharge of wastewater effluent), as well as other
factors such as differences in environmental fate and transport processes (e.g., sorption, volatilization, degradation, etc.), as evidenced by European (Loos et al. 2010)
and US studies (Barnes et al. 2008; Focazio et al. 2008).
1.3 Country-by-Country Analysis
1.3.1 China
The occurrence of PPCPs and ASs in Chinese groundwater has been reported in 10
studies, the most among Asian countries. The geological scale of the groundwater
studies in China varied widely, from the national (Li et al. 2015) and regional scale
(Kong et al. 2016; Li et al. 2016) to watershed (Gan et al. 2013; Jiang et al. 2019;
Xiang et al. 2018; Yang et al. 2018) and local scale (Peng et al. 2014; Tong et al.
2014; Yao et al. 2018). Dong et al. (2018) summarized the occurrence of a wide
range of CECs, including PPCPs and ASs, in groundwater in China. This chapter
summarizes seven further papers that were not discussed in Dong et al. (2018).