and Penicillium species have been reported. Interestingly the diverse heavy metal
tolerant filamentous fungi like Trichoderma ghanese and Rhizopus microspores
have been reported by Zafar et al. (2007) and Oladipo et al. (2014).
Mushroom can accumulate heavy metals and deposited intracellularly, mostly
sporocarps uptake maximum from the cultivation substrates. However, the molecular mechanisms of heavy metals accumulation by fungi are not yet studies. Heavy
metals accumulate mostly in percentage on the fungal cell wall and also found in
cytoplasm and vacuoles (Blaudez et al. 2000). The high degree of heavy metal in the
soil created an adverse effect on the fungal population, toxic effects on the cell
membrane and interfered with solute transport and enzyme secretion. Fungal extracellular metabolites and their chelating properties may be involved in the immobilization the heavy metals. The predominant soil fungi Aspergillus niger release/
excretion of organic acid and oxalates compound, those compound may be solubilized/immobilized by the metals (Gadd 1999). Therefore, a different group of heavy
metals tolerant fungus is being exploited in industrial wastewater and soil treatment
process.
Copper metal, on the other hand, polluted the water and soil ecosystems. Copper
are considered harmful to human and animal health (Rojas et al. 2017). The toxic
element coppers taken up by uptake by the plants/tree are released to the environment through leaching and degradation processes. The increasing amount of copper
(Cu) is witnessed in the forest ecosystem and Cu inhibit the wood rot fungi growth.
However, the copper is an essential microelement and an active component in
copper-containing oxidase enzymes like laccase. Wood degrading fungi are capable
of breaking down toxic compounds. The brown rot fungi (Fibroporia radiculosa)
overcome the copper pollution by secreting extracellular oxalate that can convert
their metabolites to insoluble oxalate crystals (Akgul and Akgul 2018). Other
brown-rot fungi such as Serpula, Postia, Fibroporia and Wolfiporia are copper
tolerant fungal species (Green and Clausen 2003). Pleurotus species play a crucial
role in biosorption/bioremediation of copper and other metals from the environment
(Kapahi and Sachdeva 2017; Vaseem et al. 2017). The yeast species Saccharomyces
cerevisiae can precipitate/bind the copper metals around their cell walls
(Thippeswamy et al. 2012).
Recent studies have shown that mycorrhizal fungi are effective at removing
heavy metals from soil. Introduce the ectomycorrhiza on Cu
2+ and Cd
2+ contaminated soil drastically reduces the metal concentration in soil (Blaudez et al. 2000).
According to Jin et al. (2018), limited scientific evidence has been reported on
Actinomycetes bioremediation. Endophytic fungi are associated with
phytoremediation and them colonization rapidly on heavy metal contaminated soil.
The endophytic fungi secrete siderophore molecules as iron (Fe) binding agents and
indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Siderophore is involved in the iron uptake and chelating
the toxic compounds, and both these agents contribute to the plant growth (Friesen
et al. 2011). However, endophytic fungi promote plant growth, trigger the mineral
uptake and protect them from abiotic stress (Friesen et al. 2011; Sanchez-Fernandez
et al. 2016). Another microfungi fungi Trichoderma harzianum effectively eliminated the nickel (Ni) from the contaminated soil, including Aspergillus and
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J. Raman et al.
tolerant filamentous fungi like Trichoderma ghanese and Rhizopus microspores
have been reported by Zafar et al. (2007) and Oladipo et al. (2014).
Mushroom can accumulate heavy metals and deposited intracellularly, mostly
sporocarps uptake maximum from the cultivation substrates. However, the molecular mechanisms of heavy metals accumulation by fungi are not yet studies. Heavy
metals accumulate mostly in percentage on the fungal cell wall and also found in
cytoplasm and vacuoles (Blaudez et al. 2000). The high degree of heavy metal in the
soil created an adverse effect on the fungal population, toxic effects on the cell
membrane and interfered with solute transport and enzyme secretion. Fungal extracellular metabolites and their chelating properties may be involved in the immobilization the heavy metals. The predominant soil fungi Aspergillus niger release/
excretion of organic acid and oxalates compound, those compound may be solubilized/immobilized by the metals (Gadd 1999). Therefore, a different group of heavy
metals tolerant fungus is being exploited in industrial wastewater and soil treatment
process.
Copper metal, on the other hand, polluted the water and soil ecosystems. Copper
are considered harmful to human and animal health (Rojas et al. 2017). The toxic
element coppers taken up by uptake by the plants/tree are released to the environment through leaching and degradation processes. The increasing amount of copper
(Cu) is witnessed in the forest ecosystem and Cu inhibit the wood rot fungi growth.
However, the copper is an essential microelement and an active component in
copper-containing oxidase enzymes like laccase. Wood degrading fungi are capable
of breaking down toxic compounds. The brown rot fungi (Fibroporia radiculosa)
overcome the copper pollution by secreting extracellular oxalate that can convert
their metabolites to insoluble oxalate crystals (Akgul and Akgul 2018). Other
brown-rot fungi such as Serpula, Postia, Fibroporia and Wolfiporia are copper
tolerant fungal species (Green and Clausen 2003). Pleurotus species play a crucial
role in biosorption/bioremediation of copper and other metals from the environment
(Kapahi and Sachdeva 2017; Vaseem et al. 2017). The yeast species Saccharomyces
cerevisiae can precipitate/bind the copper metals around their cell walls
(Thippeswamy et al. 2012).
Recent studies have shown that mycorrhizal fungi are effective at removing
heavy metals from soil. Introduce the ectomycorrhiza on Cu
2+ and Cd
2+ contaminated soil drastically reduces the metal concentration in soil (Blaudez et al. 2000).
According to Jin et al. (2018), limited scientific evidence has been reported on
Actinomycetes bioremediation. Endophytic fungi are associated with
phytoremediation and them colonization rapidly on heavy metal contaminated soil.
The endophytic fungi secrete siderophore molecules as iron (Fe) binding agents and
indole-3-acetic acid (IAA). Siderophore is involved in the iron uptake and chelating
the toxic compounds, and both these agents contribute to the plant growth (Friesen
et al. 2011). However, endophytic fungi promote plant growth, trigger the mineral
uptake and protect them from abiotic stress (Friesen et al. 2011; Sanchez-Fernandez
et al. 2016). Another microfungi fungi Trichoderma harzianum effectively eliminated the nickel (Ni) from the contaminated soil, including Aspergillus and
246
J. Raman et al.