urbanization that negatively influence the natural aqueous ecosystem because of
their transportation from surface water to groundwater (Heberer 2002; Lapworth et
al. 2012).
Groundwater pollution may be initiated from various potential sources comprising septic tanks, sewer leakage, runoff, contaminated landfills, solid waste, gasoline
spills, leaching of contaminants from contaminated water bodies and rivers, seawater
intrusion, etc. Moreover, due to the slow flow rate of groundwater and long-distance
make pollutants difficult to be discharged from groundwater. Therefore, the
emerging contaminants can stuck in the layer of groundwater (Lin et al. 2015).
The long term persistence of antibiotics even at low levels may support the abundance of antibiotic resistant bacteria in the river base flows (Watkinson et al. 2009).
In the past few decades, advanced analytical techniques made it feasible to determine
the trace level concentration of PPCPs in the groundwater. These studies determined
the presence of pharmaceuticals in groundwater at noticeable concentrations and
their distribution in groundwater resources (Fram and Belitz 2011).
13.2.3 Surface Water
Recently, the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in surface waters is well reported in
European and North American countries (Weigel et al. 2004; Nikolaou et al. 2007).
Marine water bodies can act as container of antibiotic residues (Zhang et al. 2013).
Huge amount of antibiotics travels to coastal waters from land through riverine
inputs (Zheng et al. 2012). Furthermore, after discharging of pharmaceuticals in
aquatic environment, they may reach to aquifers and change the groundwater
quality, which simultaneously combined with surface water and frequently act as a
critical source of drinking water supply (Mastroianni et al. 2016). In the water
sample collected from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, the presence and spatial
distribution of 158 pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs were analyzed as this area
from treated wastewater of Athens (Alygizakis et al. 2016). Reclaimed water is
recently used for agricultural irrigation, especially in arid and semi-arid regions as
sustainable source of water. Consequently, attention has been raised for potential
threat of these types of practices as the reclaimed water may contain different kind of
pollutants like pharmaceuticals and personal care products (Qin et al. 2015).
13.2.4 Soils and Sediments
Pharmaceuticals have been found in trace amounts in soil irrigated with reclaimed
water (Kinney et al. 2006). Frequent concoction having bioaccumulation properties
may cause the consequences of bio-uptake and pharmaceutical contamination in
agricultural soils (Qin et al. 2015). Sorption of pharmaceuticals may occur from
sewage sludge during the sewage treatment process and from where it enters the soil
by sludge and treated wastewater utilization in agricultural farms as fertilizers and
irrigation, respectively (Oppel et al. 2004; Ternes et al. 2007) and ultimately enters
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their transportation from surface water to groundwater (Heberer 2002; Lapworth et
al. 2012).
Groundwater pollution may be initiated from various potential sources comprising septic tanks, sewer leakage, runoff, contaminated landfills, solid waste, gasoline
spills, leaching of contaminants from contaminated water bodies and rivers, seawater
intrusion, etc. Moreover, due to the slow flow rate of groundwater and long-distance
make pollutants difficult to be discharged from groundwater. Therefore, the
emerging contaminants can stuck in the layer of groundwater (Lin et al. 2015).
The long term persistence of antibiotics even at low levels may support the abundance of antibiotic resistant bacteria in the river base flows (Watkinson et al. 2009).
In the past few decades, advanced analytical techniques made it feasible to determine
the trace level concentration of PPCPs in the groundwater. These studies determined
the presence of pharmaceuticals in groundwater at noticeable concentrations and
their distribution in groundwater resources (Fram and Belitz 2011).
13.2.3 Surface Water
Recently, the occurrence of pharmaceuticals in surface waters is well reported in
European and North American countries (Weigel et al. 2004; Nikolaou et al. 2007).
Marine water bodies can act as container of antibiotic residues (Zhang et al. 2013).
Huge amount of antibiotics travels to coastal waters from land through riverine
inputs (Zheng et al. 2012). Furthermore, after discharging of pharmaceuticals in
aquatic environment, they may reach to aquifers and change the groundwater
quality, which simultaneously combined with surface water and frequently act as a
critical source of drinking water supply (Mastroianni et al. 2016). In the water
sample collected from the Eastern Mediterranean Sea, the presence and spatial
distribution of 158 pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs were analyzed as this area
from treated wastewater of Athens (Alygizakis et al. 2016). Reclaimed water is
recently used for agricultural irrigation, especially in arid and semi-arid regions as
sustainable source of water. Consequently, attention has been raised for potential
threat of these types of practices as the reclaimed water may contain different kind of
pollutants like pharmaceuticals and personal care products (Qin et al. 2015).
13.2.4 Soils and Sediments
Pharmaceuticals have been found in trace amounts in soil irrigated with reclaimed
water (Kinney et al. 2006). Frequent concoction having bioaccumulation properties
may cause the consequences of bio-uptake and pharmaceutical contamination in
agricultural soils (Qin et al. 2015). Sorption of pharmaceuticals may occur from
sewage sludge during the sewage treatment process and from where it enters the soil
by sludge and treated wastewater utilization in agricultural farms as fertilizers and
irrigation, respectively (Oppel et al. 2004; Ternes et al. 2007) and ultimately enters
272
K. Sharma and G. Kaushik