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S. Mannakkara
17.1 Introduction
Our climate is changing as a result of increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases
found in the Earth’s atmosphere. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons trap heat resulting in a global warming effect,
which is causing Earth’s temperature to rise rapidly (Watts 2013; IPCC 2018). Some
of the impacts of this warming include the destabilisation and melting of ice sheets
resulting in sea-level rise, the increase in frequency and magnitude of extreme events
such as storms, floods, droughts and heatwaves, increasing ocean acidification and
changes to rainfall (IPCC 2014). Climate change thus poses a threat to communities
through increased high-impact disaster events as well as slow-creep impacts such as
sea-level rise that cause gradual changes over time.
Climate change adaptation (CCA) is referred to as the actions are taken to manage
the imminent impacts of climate change to reduce the vulnerability of communities
(IPCC 2014; McCarthy et al. 2001). To respond to extreme disaster impacts and
slow-creep impacts resulting from climate change, both climate adaptation practices and disaster risk management are necessary (O’Brien et al. 2012). Adapting
to climate change requires adaptation and risk reduction initiatives to minimise and
mitigate anticipated risks, and reduce exposure and vulnerability to existing risk
levels resulting from previous urban planning and building decisions (Lavell 2011).
The recently published Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction iterates that in fact, CCA can be characterised as a subset of disaster risk reduction (DRR)
and that CCA needs to be integrated within DRR (UNDRR 2019). CCA and DRR
are also necessary to ensure the long-term sustainability of communities (Wilbanks
and Kates 2013).
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), as
part of the 2011 Cancun Adaptation Framework (Kato 2011) and the 2015 Paris
Agreement (UNFCCC 2015), has set adaptation as a global challenge to change
processes, practices and structures to moderate potential damages and benefit from
opportunities associated with climate change. Adaptation activities are to be adopted
in all sectors of a community. DRR priorities set by the 2010 United Nations
Sendai Framework (UNISDR 2015) include understanding disaster risk, strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk, investing in disaster risk
reduction for resilience and enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response
and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. There is a
need to look at these two issues synergistically (ICSU 2008; UNDRR 2019).
Folke (2006), Walker and Salt (2006) have proposed that a systems approach
based on the concept of resilience is most fitting to address the challenges posed by
climate change, where resilience is defined as the “ability to absorb the effects of a
disruptive event, minimise adverse impacts, respond effectively post-event, maintain
or recover functionality, and adapt in a way that allows for learning and thriving, while
mitigating the adverse impacts of future events” (Stevenson et al. 2015). Creating
resilience through acceptance of the change (whether sudden or slow, and whether
known or unknown) as an inherent characteristic is key. The concept of resilience
S. Mannakkara
17.1 Introduction
Our climate is changing as a result of increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases
found in the Earth’s atmosphere. Greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrous oxide and chlorofluorocarbons trap heat resulting in a global warming effect,
which is causing Earth’s temperature to rise rapidly (Watts 2013; IPCC 2018). Some
of the impacts of this warming include the destabilisation and melting of ice sheets
resulting in sea-level rise, the increase in frequency and magnitude of extreme events
such as storms, floods, droughts and heatwaves, increasing ocean acidification and
changes to rainfall (IPCC 2014). Climate change thus poses a threat to communities
through increased high-impact disaster events as well as slow-creep impacts such as
sea-level rise that cause gradual changes over time.
Climate change adaptation (CCA) is referred to as the actions are taken to manage
the imminent impacts of climate change to reduce the vulnerability of communities
(IPCC 2014; McCarthy et al. 2001). To respond to extreme disaster impacts and
slow-creep impacts resulting from climate change, both climate adaptation practices and disaster risk management are necessary (O’Brien et al. 2012). Adapting
to climate change requires adaptation and risk reduction initiatives to minimise and
mitigate anticipated risks, and reduce exposure and vulnerability to existing risk
levels resulting from previous urban planning and building decisions (Lavell 2011).
The recently published Global Assessment Report on Disaster Risk Reduction iterates that in fact, CCA can be characterised as a subset of disaster risk reduction (DRR)
and that CCA needs to be integrated within DRR (UNDRR 2019). CCA and DRR
are also necessary to ensure the long-term sustainability of communities (Wilbanks
and Kates 2013).
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), as
part of the 2011 Cancun Adaptation Framework (Kato 2011) and the 2015 Paris
Agreement (UNFCCC 2015), has set adaptation as a global challenge to change
processes, practices and structures to moderate potential damages and benefit from
opportunities associated with climate change. Adaptation activities are to be adopted
in all sectors of a community. DRR priorities set by the 2010 United Nations
Sendai Framework (UNISDR 2015) include understanding disaster risk, strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk, investing in disaster risk
reduction for resilience and enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response
and to “Build Back Better” in recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction. There is a
need to look at these two issues synergistically (ICSU 2008; UNDRR 2019).
Folke (2006), Walker and Salt (2006) have proposed that a systems approach
based on the concept of resilience is most fitting to address the challenges posed by
climate change, where resilience is defined as the “ability to absorb the effects of a
disruptive event, minimise adverse impacts, respond effectively post-event, maintain
or recover functionality, and adapt in a way that allows for learning and thriving, while
mitigating the adverse impacts of future events” (Stevenson et al. 2015). Creating
resilience through acceptance of the change (whether sudden or slow, and whether
known or unknown) as an inherent characteristic is key. The concept of resilience