agricultural area is 20,968 km
2 (irrigated 29%, and rainfed
71%), natural forests and shrubs are 3,356 km
2 , rangelands
is 150,061 km
2 , valleys land is 15,471 km
2 , salinized land is
9679 km
2 , urbanized area is 1,883 km
2 , and other stone
gravel, sand dunes, and barren land around 1,558,122 km
2
(90% of the total area).
6.3 An Overview of the Vegetation
Distribution in Libya
Vegetation refers to the plants and trees that are found in a
particular region. In Libya, the geographical location and
climatic conditions strongly influence the vegetation status
and its distribution across the country. Vegetation is sparse,
particularly in the desert areas, although oases support the
growth of date palms, as well as olive and orange trees.
Agricultural vegetation can be found mainly on the northern
strip along the Mediterranean coast, some mountainous
regions, and several dispersed oases in the desert (see
Fig. 1.3, Chap. 1). This agricultural vegetation consists of
common crops and pasture grasses as shown in Fig. (6.2).
The natural vegetation distribution in Libya varies mainly
according to the climatic zone and soil types. It includes
natural forests of different trees and some other natural
vegetation with predominant species of nonwoody shrubs as
shown in Fig. 6.3.
The diversity of natural vegetation communities and
native species of Libyan plants reflect local and regional
variations in environmental factors. Acknowledging that
most of the country is desert dry areas, the fertile regions are
mainly present in the coastal strip areas. According to the
Atlas of Libya (1978), the natural vegetation in Libya can be
represented by twenty-one vegetation types (Fig. 6.4 and
Table 6.2).
As shown in Fig. 6.4, the coastal region is characterized
by halophytic vegetation, whereas the mountain areas prevail with Mediterranean vegetation, such as Aleppo pine
forests, Arar forests with Junipers, and steppe with coastal
forest belts. The subdesert and desert areas are characterized
by the presence of steppe with bushes and shrubs and
herbaceous plants in the subdesert areas, and sporadic vegetation and some short-lived vegetation after rains in the
desert areas.
It was also stated in the Fourth National Report to the
Convention on Biological Diversity that the biological diversity in Libya is considered relatively poor (according to
the registered species) despite the large area of the country
(Department of Environment, Tripoli, Libya 2010 ). Past
studies and research have indicated that there are about 1750
plants in the country that follow 744 genera distributed over
118 families, of which only about 4% are endemic, such as
the Pachyctenium, Libyella, and Oudneya. It is also worth
mentioning that more than 50% of the total number of
endemic plants can be found in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, in the
northeast region of the country.
6.4 Land Distribution, Use, and Suitability
Libya’s land area is about 1.76 million km
2 (Zurqani et al.
2019). More than 90% of this area is desert; only a very
small percentage of Libyan land is capable of being plowed
and used to grow crops. In 2016, the agricultural land is
estimated at about 8.73% of the total area of the country with
an arable land of about 1%. Land under permanent crops is
estimated at only about 0.19% (Table 6.3).
In Libya, the suitable area for cultivation approximates
22,000 km
2 , of which 2,390 km
2 are dedicated to irrigated
agriculture, 15,500 km
2
to rainfed farming, and
140,000 km
2 to forest and rangelands. Irrigation potential
has been estimated at about 7,500 km
2 , relying mostly on
fossil water, but when considering renewable water resources, it decreases to 400 km
2 in the coastal areas (Azzabi
1996). Generally, the crop yields of both rainfed and irrigation are low (Table 6.4). For example, the average yields
of rainfed for wheat and barley are 650 kg/ha and 450 kg/ha,
respectively. The average yields of irrigation for them are
about 750 kg/ha and 1400 kg/ha, respectively.
The average yield of irrigated wheat and barley in Libya
is much lower than the yields obtained in other Mediterranean countries. The yields of irrigated fruits and vegetable
crops are generally also lower than in the surrounding
countries, but for these crops, the differences are smaller.
Besides the aridity of the climate, which reduces rainfed
yields, this is due to prevailing shallow, coarse soils with
limited natural fertility and high risk of soil erosions.
Determining how to use land efficiently in Libya is an
ongoing need. Previous attempts to improve soil management in Libya have used a Productivity Rating Index (Ben
Mahmoud 1995). This index is a parametric system that was
adapted and developed for Libyan soils by Prof. Khaled Ben
Mahmoud in 1995 (see Chap. 2). In 2013, it was integrated
within Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to determine
the productivity rating and suitability classes for selected soil
uses in the northwestern of the country (Nwer et al. 2013).
The results showed that olive and tomato are soil uses with
the largest area of highly suitable class, whereas palm trees,
potato, barley, and wheat are crops with the largest area with
a marginally suitable class (Fig. 6.5 and Table 6.5).
Nwer et al. (2013) indicated that the use of a soil productivity rating Index that takes into account soil factors
helps to distinguish the most limiting of these factors. Consequently, the results of soil suitability classes assisted in
identifying which of the studied crops are suitable to grow
and in which location. This evaluation can help decision
80
H. A. Zurqani and K. R. Ben Mahmoud
2 (irrigated 29%, and rainfed
71%), natural forests and shrubs are 3,356 km
2 , rangelands
is 150,061 km
2 , valleys land is 15,471 km
2 , salinized land is
9679 km
2 , urbanized area is 1,883 km
2 , and other stone
gravel, sand dunes, and barren land around 1,558,122 km
2
(90% of the total area).
6.3 An Overview of the Vegetation
Distribution in Libya
Vegetation refers to the plants and trees that are found in a
particular region. In Libya, the geographical location and
climatic conditions strongly influence the vegetation status
and its distribution across the country. Vegetation is sparse,
particularly in the desert areas, although oases support the
growth of date palms, as well as olive and orange trees.
Agricultural vegetation can be found mainly on the northern
strip along the Mediterranean coast, some mountainous
regions, and several dispersed oases in the desert (see
Fig. 1.3, Chap. 1). This agricultural vegetation consists of
common crops and pasture grasses as shown in Fig. (6.2).
The natural vegetation distribution in Libya varies mainly
according to the climatic zone and soil types. It includes
natural forests of different trees and some other natural
vegetation with predominant species of nonwoody shrubs as
shown in Fig. 6.3.
The diversity of natural vegetation communities and
native species of Libyan plants reflect local and regional
variations in environmental factors. Acknowledging that
most of the country is desert dry areas, the fertile regions are
mainly present in the coastal strip areas. According to the
Atlas of Libya (1978), the natural vegetation in Libya can be
represented by twenty-one vegetation types (Fig. 6.4 and
Table 6.2).
As shown in Fig. 6.4, the coastal region is characterized
by halophytic vegetation, whereas the mountain areas prevail with Mediterranean vegetation, such as Aleppo pine
forests, Arar forests with Junipers, and steppe with coastal
forest belts. The subdesert and desert areas are characterized
by the presence of steppe with bushes and shrubs and
herbaceous plants in the subdesert areas, and sporadic vegetation and some short-lived vegetation after rains in the
desert areas.
It was also stated in the Fourth National Report to the
Convention on Biological Diversity that the biological diversity in Libya is considered relatively poor (according to
the registered species) despite the large area of the country
(Department of Environment, Tripoli, Libya 2010 ). Past
studies and research have indicated that there are about 1750
plants in the country that follow 744 genera distributed over
118 families, of which only about 4% are endemic, such as
the Pachyctenium, Libyella, and Oudneya. It is also worth
mentioning that more than 50% of the total number of
endemic plants can be found in Al Jabal Al Akhdar, in the
northeast region of the country.
6.4 Land Distribution, Use, and Suitability
Libya’s land area is about 1.76 million km
2 (Zurqani et al.
2019). More than 90% of this area is desert; only a very
small percentage of Libyan land is capable of being plowed
and used to grow crops. In 2016, the agricultural land is
estimated at about 8.73% of the total area of the country with
an arable land of about 1%. Land under permanent crops is
estimated at only about 0.19% (Table 6.3).
In Libya, the suitable area for cultivation approximates
22,000 km
2 , of which 2,390 km
2 are dedicated to irrigated
agriculture, 15,500 km
2
to rainfed farming, and
140,000 km
2 to forest and rangelands. Irrigation potential
has been estimated at about 7,500 km
2 , relying mostly on
fossil water, but when considering renewable water resources, it decreases to 400 km
2 in the coastal areas (Azzabi
1996). Generally, the crop yields of both rainfed and irrigation are low (Table 6.4). For example, the average yields
of rainfed for wheat and barley are 650 kg/ha and 450 kg/ha,
respectively. The average yields of irrigation for them are
about 750 kg/ha and 1400 kg/ha, respectively.
The average yield of irrigated wheat and barley in Libya
is much lower than the yields obtained in other Mediterranean countries. The yields of irrigated fruits and vegetable
crops are generally also lower than in the surrounding
countries, but for these crops, the differences are smaller.
Besides the aridity of the climate, which reduces rainfed
yields, this is due to prevailing shallow, coarse soils with
limited natural fertility and high risk of soil erosions.
Determining how to use land efficiently in Libya is an
ongoing need. Previous attempts to improve soil management in Libya have used a Productivity Rating Index (Ben
Mahmoud 1995). This index is a parametric system that was
adapted and developed for Libyan soils by Prof. Khaled Ben
Mahmoud in 1995 (see Chap. 2). In 2013, it was integrated
within Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to determine
the productivity rating and suitability classes for selected soil
uses in the northwestern of the country (Nwer et al. 2013).
The results showed that olive and tomato are soil uses with
the largest area of highly suitable class, whereas palm trees,
potato, barley, and wheat are crops with the largest area with
a marginally suitable class (Fig. 6.5 and Table 6.5).
Nwer et al. (2013) indicated that the use of a soil productivity rating Index that takes into account soil factors
helps to distinguish the most limiting of these factors. Consequently, the results of soil suitability classes assisted in
identifying which of the studied crops are suitable to grow
and in which location. This evaluation can help decision
80
H. A. Zurqani and K. R. Ben Mahmoud