zones (Maselli et al. 2009). Libya is characterized by similar
vegetation types that closely resemble the quality and density of the species found in climatically similar regions (dry
desert areas and Mediterranean regions), with the exception
of coastal areas, and especially the northeastern and northwestern mountains (the mountains of Tripoli and Al Jabal Al
Akhdar), which receive rainfall of more than 200 mm
annually (Al-Idrissi et al. 1996). Most of the agricultural
activities are restricted to a long narrow strip along the
Mediterranean coast, low mountains, and scattered oases in
the desert (Zurqani et al. 2019) (see Fig. 1.3, Chap. 1).
Previously, there were no accurate statistics on the types of
vegetation cover in Libya due to the diffuse boundaries
between vegetation and arable land. However, this problem has
been resolved in the recent land cover map (LIB/00/004) in
terms of species and the most predominant vegetation types.
This chapter discusses the land cover, land use, and vegetation
distribution in Libya. It also provides the results that are easily
understood by the decision makers for better land use planning,
improving the implementation of management strategies to
meet the increasing demands for basic human needs and welfare of the ever-growing population in Libya.
6.2 Land Cover Map
The Libyan land cover dataset was created with a visual
interpretation of the satellite imagery covering the period
(2001–2002), using GeoVIS techniques and Land Cover
Classification System (LCCS), followed by a dense field
check operation using a series of field surveys all over the
country. At the end of December 2005, the Libyan land
cover database was updated with additional information
gathered from precision assessment activities, all within the
framework of the LIB/00/004 “Mapping of Natural
Resources for Agriculture Use and Planning in Libya Project”. Landsat satellite imagery of the 1980s, 1990s, and
2000 were compared using change detection analysis and
followed by a dense field check operation. The final land
cover map was created by clustering over a hundred of the
original land cover classes into only ten generalized classes
based on the most sensitive land cover features in Libya
(Fig. 6.1 and Table 6.1). The result is an aggregation that
keeps a good level of information, giving an accurate estimate of the areas covered by each aggregated class. Presently, this map and its accompanying statistics are one of
the most reliable sources of the land cover in Libya, where it
is also used by the provincial agencies, public, and private
stakeholders for different purposes including development
and conservation projects. The final aggregated land cove
classes of this map can be summarized as follows
(LIB/00/004 2009).
1. Natural Forest and Reforest: These forests originated
from the original forest cover, which reproduced naturally. They have spontaneously generated themselves
on the location and consist of natural immigrant tree
species and strains.
2. Irrigated Agriculture: These areas cultivated the artificial application of water to the soil in order to grow
crops. They are primarily used to replace missing
rainfall in periods of drought, as well as to protect
plants against frost.
3. Rainfed Agriculture: These areas include the cultivation of crops under conditions of natural rainfall.
4. Rangeland: This area contains a significant proportion
of natural vegetation including native grasses, grass-like
plants, and shrubs. Rangeland also consists of seeded
areas to native or adapted introduced species that are
managed like native vegetation.
5. Sabkha: These areas consist of flat depression and very
saline areas of sand or silt lying close or above the water
table and covered with a salt crust. Sabkha often contains soft nodules and enterolith veins of gypsum or
anhydrite.
6. Bare Soil in Wadi: This area includes dry wadis with
soil surface devoid of any plant material. Typically, it is
either a drought environment or receives only a seasonal runoff in small quantities.
7. Bare Soil Consolidated which known locally as
Hamada (Rocky Deserts): These areas are characterized by the solid and firm consistency of their surface or
by the presence of coarse fragments with these properties. The surface and the coarse materials remain
coherent and hard even when moist.
8. Bare Soil Unconsolidated which known locally as
Sarrier (Desert Pavements): A defined area is covered
with materials that are neither solid nor firm. The surface can be penetrated with a spade or a hoe.
9. Loose and Shifting Sand: These areas are covered by
soil particles. These particles may be moved by regularly occurring winds and form distinct patterns, where
a stony surface can be specified.
10. Urban Areas: These areas are nonlinear built-up areas
covered by impervious structures adjacent to or connected by streets. This land cover is related to centers of
population.
The use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology helped to generate an accurate land cover map and
illustrate statistically the relation of both the natural vegetation zones and the agricultural area within the desert
ecosystem in Libya. As indicated in Table 5.1, the total area
of Libyan land is about 1,759,540 km
2 , where the
78
H. A. Zurqani and K. R. Ben Mahmoud
vegetation types that closely resemble the quality and density of the species found in climatically similar regions (dry
desert areas and Mediterranean regions), with the exception
of coastal areas, and especially the northeastern and northwestern mountains (the mountains of Tripoli and Al Jabal Al
Akhdar), which receive rainfall of more than 200 mm
annually (Al-Idrissi et al. 1996). Most of the agricultural
activities are restricted to a long narrow strip along the
Mediterranean coast, low mountains, and scattered oases in
the desert (Zurqani et al. 2019) (see Fig. 1.3, Chap. 1).
Previously, there were no accurate statistics on the types of
vegetation cover in Libya due to the diffuse boundaries
between vegetation and arable land. However, this problem has
been resolved in the recent land cover map (LIB/00/004) in
terms of species and the most predominant vegetation types.
This chapter discusses the land cover, land use, and vegetation
distribution in Libya. It also provides the results that are easily
understood by the decision makers for better land use planning,
improving the implementation of management strategies to
meet the increasing demands for basic human needs and welfare of the ever-growing population in Libya.
6.2 Land Cover Map
The Libyan land cover dataset was created with a visual
interpretation of the satellite imagery covering the period
(2001–2002), using GeoVIS techniques and Land Cover
Classification System (LCCS), followed by a dense field
check operation using a series of field surveys all over the
country. At the end of December 2005, the Libyan land
cover database was updated with additional information
gathered from precision assessment activities, all within the
framework of the LIB/00/004 “Mapping of Natural
Resources for Agriculture Use and Planning in Libya Project”. Landsat satellite imagery of the 1980s, 1990s, and
2000 were compared using change detection analysis and
followed by a dense field check operation. The final land
cover map was created by clustering over a hundred of the
original land cover classes into only ten generalized classes
based on the most sensitive land cover features in Libya
(Fig. 6.1 and Table 6.1). The result is an aggregation that
keeps a good level of information, giving an accurate estimate of the areas covered by each aggregated class. Presently, this map and its accompanying statistics are one of
the most reliable sources of the land cover in Libya, where it
is also used by the provincial agencies, public, and private
stakeholders for different purposes including development
and conservation projects. The final aggregated land cove
classes of this map can be summarized as follows
(LIB/00/004 2009).
1. Natural Forest and Reforest: These forests originated
from the original forest cover, which reproduced naturally. They have spontaneously generated themselves
on the location and consist of natural immigrant tree
species and strains.
2. Irrigated Agriculture: These areas cultivated the artificial application of water to the soil in order to grow
crops. They are primarily used to replace missing
rainfall in periods of drought, as well as to protect
plants against frost.
3. Rainfed Agriculture: These areas include the cultivation of crops under conditions of natural rainfall.
4. Rangeland: This area contains a significant proportion
of natural vegetation including native grasses, grass-like
plants, and shrubs. Rangeland also consists of seeded
areas to native or adapted introduced species that are
managed like native vegetation.
5. Sabkha: These areas consist of flat depression and very
saline areas of sand or silt lying close or above the water
table and covered with a salt crust. Sabkha often contains soft nodules and enterolith veins of gypsum or
anhydrite.
6. Bare Soil in Wadi: This area includes dry wadis with
soil surface devoid of any plant material. Typically, it is
either a drought environment or receives only a seasonal runoff in small quantities.
7. Bare Soil Consolidated which known locally as
Hamada (Rocky Deserts): These areas are characterized by the solid and firm consistency of their surface or
by the presence of coarse fragments with these properties. The surface and the coarse materials remain
coherent and hard even when moist.
8. Bare Soil Unconsolidated which known locally as
Sarrier (Desert Pavements): A defined area is covered
with materials that are neither solid nor firm. The surface can be penetrated with a spade or a hoe.
9. Loose and Shifting Sand: These areas are covered by
soil particles. These particles may be moved by regularly occurring winds and form distinct patterns, where
a stony surface can be specified.
10. Urban Areas: These areas are nonlinear built-up areas
covered by impervious structures adjacent to or connected by streets. This land cover is related to centers of
population.
The use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology helped to generate an accurate land cover map and
illustrate statistically the relation of both the natural vegetation zones and the agricultural area within the desert
ecosystem in Libya. As indicated in Table 5.1, the total area
of Libyan land is about 1,759,540 km
2 , where the
78
H. A. Zurqani and K. R. Ben Mahmoud