• Ferrisiallitization: Ferrisiallitization is the process that is
responsible for the formation of soil Xeralfs or Ferrosiallitic, which is located in Al Jabal Al Akhdar and the
Benghazi Plain. In this process, the soluble salts and the
base elements are partially washed from the upper layers
of the soil profile. As a consequence, new silicate minerals are formed and accumulated in the place of their
formation simultaneously with the accumulation of iron
oxides and hydroxides. In drought periods, the distinctive
red color dominates the color of these soils, as a sign of
Dehydration. This process may be associated with the
other specific composite soil forming processes, such as
the process of hydration, salinization, and others, which
may cause differences in soil properties from one region
to another (Selkhozprom Export, 1980).
3.5 Conclusion
Generally, aside from Al Jabal Al Akhdar and a portion of
Tripoli Mountains (Jabal Nafusa), Libya is influenced by an
arid and semi-arid climate where vegetation cover is usually
sparse or absent. Soil forming factors and the formation
processes of diagnostic horizons in different regions of Libya
are mainly influenced by these characteristics. Consequently,
the development of soil profiles is extremely limited, which
results in undeveloped or partially developed soils, such as
Entisols and Aridisols, due to the ineffectiveness of organic
matter accumulation and washing processes (additions, losses, transformations, etc.). Therefore, the profiles of these
soils are often devoid of developed subsurface diagnostic
horizons. However, in somewhat conducive local conditions,
Calcic, Salic, or Gypsic horizons may be formed. The situation is slightly different in coastal areas, especially in the Al
Jabal Al Akhdar and Tripoli Mountains regions, where
precipitation rates are slightly higher. This climate condition
encourages the presence of vegetation cover, which activates
some of the formation processes in these regions. This
includes the accumulation of organic matter on the surface,
or the formation of silicate clay minerals, moving it and
accumulating it within the soil profile, and developing the
Mollic, Cambic, or Argillic horizons forming the most relatively developed soils in the country. Most of the parent
material of Libyan soils contains a high percentage of calcium carbonate and exists on a steep topography, which
disrupts the functioning of the climate and vegetation and
consequently the soil developments. It should also be noted
that some Libyan soils, especially those in the south (in the
desert), are not related in their traits and characteristics to the
current climate. Rather, their formation is due to the pluvial
period, which can be traced back to the Quaternary and Early
Modern eras.
Acknowledgements Professor Khaled Ben Mahmoud would like to
thank and express his appreciation and gratitude to the late Prof. Dr.
Robert D. Heil, Professor of Soil Genesis, Classification and Mapping
at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. The late
Prof. Heil was the Academic Supervisor for Prof. Ben Mahmoud in his
MSc and Ph.D. (1971–1977), from which he learned, besides the
academic and practical aspects, seriousness in work, humility, participation by others, and encouraging them to work in a team spirit. This is
the same policy that Prof. Ben Mahmoud followed with his colleagues
who graduated during the past years from Libyan universities. Professor Ben Mahmoud’s contribution to this chapter is dedicated to the
spirit of Prof. Robert D. Hiel.
References
Al Hajjaji S (1989) The New Libya (a geographical, socio-economic
and political study), Tripoli Publishing Center. Tripoli, Libya
Ben Mahmoud KR (1995) Libyan soils (Their Genesis, Classification,
Properties and Agricultural potentials) NASR, Tripoli, Libya,
pp 615 (in Arabic)
Ben Mahmoud KR (2013) Towards a national strategy for the
sustainability of natural resources and enhancing food security in
Libya, pp 123 (in Arabic)
Dregne HE (2011) Soils of arid regions. Development in Soil Science
(Vol. 6). Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, pp 236
Elhawej AZ, Elaalem MM (2012) A guide morphological description
and classification soil profile in the field. pp 80 (in Arabic)
Fick SE, Hijmans RJ (2017) WorldClim 2: new 1 km spatial resolution
climate surfaces for global land areas. Int J Climatol 37(12):4302–
4315
Goudarzi GH (1970). Geology and mineral resources of Libya-a
reconnaissance (No. 660). US Govt. Print. Off.,. https://pubs.er.
usgs.gov/publication/pp660. Accessed 25 October 2020
Government of Libya, Secretariat of Planning, Surveying Department
(1978) The National Atlas of Libya. Tripoli, Libya
Lamb J , George WR (2018) Five factors of soil formation. https://
extension.umn.edu/soil-management-and-health/five-factors-soilformation. Accessed 25 October 2020
LIB/00/004. 2009. Mapping of Natural Resources for Agriculture Use
and Planning in Libya Project, Atlas of Natural Resources for
Agricultural Use in Libya. http://www.fao.org/geospatial/resources/
detail/en/c/1024739/. Accessed 11 April 2019
Naguib MM, Khidr M (1989) Foundations of pedology. Modern Arabic
office for printing and publishing, Alexandria Egypt
Persits F, Ahlbrandt T, Tuttle M, Charpentier R, Brownfield M,
Takahashi K (2002) Map showing geology, oil and gas fields and
geologic provinces of Africa, Ver 2.0. USGS Open File report
97-470 A
Sharaf AA (1971) Libya geography. Al MaarifFacility in Alexandria,
Egypt
Solkhozprom Export. Soil Ecological Expedition. USSR (1980) Soil
studies in western zone, eastern zone, and central zone of Libya.
Ministry of Agri. and Land Development. Tripoli. Three separate
volumes. (in English)
3 Soil Forming Factors and Processes
47
responsible for the formation of soil Xeralfs or Ferrosiallitic, which is located in Al Jabal Al Akhdar and the
Benghazi Plain. In this process, the soluble salts and the
base elements are partially washed from the upper layers
of the soil profile. As a consequence, new silicate minerals are formed and accumulated in the place of their
formation simultaneously with the accumulation of iron
oxides and hydroxides. In drought periods, the distinctive
red color dominates the color of these soils, as a sign of
Dehydration. This process may be associated with the
other specific composite soil forming processes, such as
the process of hydration, salinization, and others, which
may cause differences in soil properties from one region
to another (Selkhozprom Export, 1980).
3.5 Conclusion
Generally, aside from Al Jabal Al Akhdar and a portion of
Tripoli Mountains (Jabal Nafusa), Libya is influenced by an
arid and semi-arid climate where vegetation cover is usually
sparse or absent. Soil forming factors and the formation
processes of diagnostic horizons in different regions of Libya
are mainly influenced by these characteristics. Consequently,
the development of soil profiles is extremely limited, which
results in undeveloped or partially developed soils, such as
Entisols and Aridisols, due to the ineffectiveness of organic
matter accumulation and washing processes (additions, losses, transformations, etc.). Therefore, the profiles of these
soils are often devoid of developed subsurface diagnostic
horizons. However, in somewhat conducive local conditions,
Calcic, Salic, or Gypsic horizons may be formed. The situation is slightly different in coastal areas, especially in the Al
Jabal Al Akhdar and Tripoli Mountains regions, where
precipitation rates are slightly higher. This climate condition
encourages the presence of vegetation cover, which activates
some of the formation processes in these regions. This
includes the accumulation of organic matter on the surface,
or the formation of silicate clay minerals, moving it and
accumulating it within the soil profile, and developing the
Mollic, Cambic, or Argillic horizons forming the most relatively developed soils in the country. Most of the parent
material of Libyan soils contains a high percentage of calcium carbonate and exists on a steep topography, which
disrupts the functioning of the climate and vegetation and
consequently the soil developments. It should also be noted
that some Libyan soils, especially those in the south (in the
desert), are not related in their traits and characteristics to the
current climate. Rather, their formation is due to the pluvial
period, which can be traced back to the Quaternary and Early
Modern eras.
Acknowledgements Professor Khaled Ben Mahmoud would like to
thank and express his appreciation and gratitude to the late Prof. Dr.
Robert D. Heil, Professor of Soil Genesis, Classification and Mapping
at Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado, USA. The late
Prof. Heil was the Academic Supervisor for Prof. Ben Mahmoud in his
MSc and Ph.D. (1971–1977), from which he learned, besides the
academic and practical aspects, seriousness in work, humility, participation by others, and encouraging them to work in a team spirit. This is
the same policy that Prof. Ben Mahmoud followed with his colleagues
who graduated during the past years from Libyan universities. Professor Ben Mahmoud’s contribution to this chapter is dedicated to the
spirit of Prof. Robert D. Hiel.
References
Al Hajjaji S (1989) The New Libya (a geographical, socio-economic
and political study), Tripoli Publishing Center. Tripoli, Libya
Ben Mahmoud KR (1995) Libyan soils (Their Genesis, Classification,
Properties and Agricultural potentials) NASR, Tripoli, Libya,
pp 615 (in Arabic)
Ben Mahmoud KR (2013) Towards a national strategy for the
sustainability of natural resources and enhancing food security in
Libya, pp 123 (in Arabic)
Dregne HE (2011) Soils of arid regions. Development in Soil Science
(Vol. 6). Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam,
Netherlands, pp 236
Elhawej AZ, Elaalem MM (2012) A guide morphological description
and classification soil profile in the field. pp 80 (in Arabic)
Fick SE, Hijmans RJ (2017) WorldClim 2: new 1 km spatial resolution
climate surfaces for global land areas. Int J Climatol 37(12):4302–
4315
Goudarzi GH (1970). Geology and mineral resources of Libya-a
reconnaissance (No. 660). US Govt. Print. Off.,. https://pubs.er.
usgs.gov/publication/pp660. Accessed 25 October 2020
Government of Libya, Secretariat of Planning, Surveying Department
(1978) The National Atlas of Libya. Tripoli, Libya
Lamb J , George WR (2018) Five factors of soil formation. https://
extension.umn.edu/soil-management-and-health/five-factors-soilformation. Accessed 25 October 2020
LIB/00/004. 2009. Mapping of Natural Resources for Agriculture Use
and Planning in Libya Project, Atlas of Natural Resources for
Agricultural Use in Libya. http://www.fao.org/geospatial/resources/
detail/en/c/1024739/. Accessed 11 April 2019
Naguib MM, Khidr M (1989) Foundations of pedology. Modern Arabic
office for printing and publishing, Alexandria Egypt
Persits F, Ahlbrandt T, Tuttle M, Charpentier R, Brownfield M,
Takahashi K (2002) Map showing geology, oil and gas fields and
geologic provinces of Africa, Ver 2.0. USGS Open File report
97-470 A
Sharaf AA (1971) Libya geography. Al MaarifFacility in Alexandria,
Egypt
Solkhozprom Export. Soil Ecological Expedition. USSR (1980) Soil
studies in western zone, eastern zone, and central zone of Libya.
Ministry of Agri. and Land Development. Tripoli. Three separate
volumes. (in English)
3 Soil Forming Factors and Processes
47