application of phosphate fertilizer to Andosols, and the
application of lime to adjust the pH of acidic soils. However,
the beneficial effects of these improvements were not always
sustained for long. Soils that have strong limiting factors easily
return to being problematic soils. For example, drained peat
can shrink and decompose, and then, land subsidence can
occur; after subsidence, the groundwater table can rise again,
which returns the field to a state of poor drainage. Another
problem is that iron compounds stick and deposit to drainage
pipes in fields with poor drainage. Plowing gradually decreases the soil organic matter content and degrades soil structures,
and large machines destroy macropores in soil and soil compactness increases in clay-rich soils. Additionally, in recent
years, the merging of small fields into large ones has caused
concerns about the problem of field heterogeneity.
1.3.3 Fertilization Standards
The fertilization standards were developed following the
Fundamental Soil Survey for Soil Fertility for each prefecture
in Japan. The fertilization standards are defined as the amount
of fertilizer that achieves the target yield without causing
environmental issues. The fertilization standards indicate the
appropriate amount of fertilizer based on soil diagnosis
referring to soil chemical properties, soil type, crop management history, and target crop. If a soil is diagnosed to be
non-usable, it should be conditioned before farming starts.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD 2008) reported that the amount of
excess fertilizer nitrogen in Japan (calculated as nitrogen
fertilizer input minus nitrogen output by harvest) was
174 kg ha
−1 between 2000 and 2004, the second highest
value globally behind the Republic of Korea. However, only
5% of measurement points showed higher levels of
nitrate-nitrogen than the drinking water standard (NO 3
− -
N < 10 mg N L
−1 ) in Japan, while that value was 20% in
Italy, Korea, Denmark, Belgium, and the Netherlands.
Although Japan uses excessive amounts of nitrogen fertilizer, the groundwater tends to be less polluted. The possible
reasons for this are that cultivated land occupies a relatively
small portion of land (12%), precipitation in the growing
period is high, and 33.1% of cultivated land is paddy field.
The pollution of groundwater by NO 3
− -N is a serious
problem around the world. The proportion of points
exceeding drinking water standards is more than 10% in
Europe and USA. Consequently, organic farming—that is,
farming that does not use chemical fertilizers—is promoted.
However, the share of organic farming has remained low in
Japan, at only 0.2% of cultivated land area.
Nevertheless, the excessive application of organic materials
can cause excessive nitrogen accumulation, as with chemical
fertilization. Efforts in environmentally friendly agriculture in
Japan started from negotiations of the “agriculture and environment” relationship agreed in the Uruguay Round of GATT
in 1993, after undergoing “sustainable development” proposed
by the World Commission on Environment and Development
(Brundtland Commission) in 1987.
The Japanese government defined environmentally
friendly agriculture as “agricultural production practice that
has a low impact on the environment with reduced chemical
fertilizers and pesticides, by taking measures such as soil
conditioning (‘Tsuchi-Zukuri’ in Japanese) and emphasizing
harmony of the environment with agriculture and fully
understanding the material cycling function of agriculture.”
In 1999, the Act on Promotion of Introduction of Sustainable Agricultural Production Practices and the Act on the
Appropriate Treatment and Promotion of Utilization of
Livestock Manure were enacted. The fertilization standards
were defined following these acts. For example, the Hokkaido Fertilizer Recommendations 2015 is now used in
Hokkaido (see Chapter 5).
References
Fifth Committee for Soil Classification and Nomenclature of Japanese
Society of Pedology (2017) Soil classification system of Japan. (in
Japanese)
Forestry Agency in Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
(2018). Forestry coverage and planted forest coverage data at
2012/3/31. (in Japanese) http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/keikaku/
genkyou/h24/1.html
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, (2018a). Statistics of crops.
(in Japanese) http://www.maff.go.jp/j/tokei/kouhyou/sakumotu/
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. (2018b). Livestock
statistics. (in Japanese) https://www.e-stat.go.jp/stat-search/files?
page=1&layout=datalist&toukei=00500222&tstat=
000001015614&cycle=7&year=20160&month=0&tclass1=
000001020206&tclass2=000001088855
Nira R (2013) A new frame work for study of irrigated paddy rice and
upland crops rotation farming and its relation to soil and plant
nutrition science. 4 The declines of soil fertility of drained paddy
fields under crops rotation and its fertility management. Japanese J
Soil Sci Plant Nutr 84:487–492 (in Japanese)
Oda K, Miwa E, Iwamoto A (1987) Database of representative soil
profiles surveyed in fundamental soil survey for soil fertility.
Japanese J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 58:112–131 (in Japanese)
OECD (2008) Environmental performance of agriculture in OECD
countries since 1990. p 575. OECD Publication, Paris
Soil genesis and classification laboratory, National Institute for
Agro-Environmental Sciences (1996) typology and regional characteristics of clay mineral composition in lowland soil in Japan.
http://www.naro.affrc.go.jp/archive/niaes/sinfo/result/result13/
result13_02.html. National Institute for Agro-Environmental
Sciences, Tsukuba. (in Japanese)
1 Overview
9
application of lime to adjust the pH of acidic soils. However,
the beneficial effects of these improvements were not always
sustained for long. Soils that have strong limiting factors easily
return to being problematic soils. For example, drained peat
can shrink and decompose, and then, land subsidence can
occur; after subsidence, the groundwater table can rise again,
which returns the field to a state of poor drainage. Another
problem is that iron compounds stick and deposit to drainage
pipes in fields with poor drainage. Plowing gradually decreases the soil organic matter content and degrades soil structures,
and large machines destroy macropores in soil and soil compactness increases in clay-rich soils. Additionally, in recent
years, the merging of small fields into large ones has caused
concerns about the problem of field heterogeneity.
1.3.3 Fertilization Standards
The fertilization standards were developed following the
Fundamental Soil Survey for Soil Fertility for each prefecture
in Japan. The fertilization standards are defined as the amount
of fertilizer that achieves the target yield without causing
environmental issues. The fertilization standards indicate the
appropriate amount of fertilizer based on soil diagnosis
referring to soil chemical properties, soil type, crop management history, and target crop. If a soil is diagnosed to be
non-usable, it should be conditioned before farming starts.
The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD 2008) reported that the amount of
excess fertilizer nitrogen in Japan (calculated as nitrogen
fertilizer input minus nitrogen output by harvest) was
174 kg ha
−1 between 2000 and 2004, the second highest
value globally behind the Republic of Korea. However, only
5% of measurement points showed higher levels of
nitrate-nitrogen than the drinking water standard (NO 3
− -
N < 10 mg N L
−1 ) in Japan, while that value was 20% in
Italy, Korea, Denmark, Belgium, and the Netherlands.
Although Japan uses excessive amounts of nitrogen fertilizer, the groundwater tends to be less polluted. The possible
reasons for this are that cultivated land occupies a relatively
small portion of land (12%), precipitation in the growing
period is high, and 33.1% of cultivated land is paddy field.
The pollution of groundwater by NO 3
− -N is a serious
problem around the world. The proportion of points
exceeding drinking water standards is more than 10% in
Europe and USA. Consequently, organic farming—that is,
farming that does not use chemical fertilizers—is promoted.
However, the share of organic farming has remained low in
Japan, at only 0.2% of cultivated land area.
Nevertheless, the excessive application of organic materials
can cause excessive nitrogen accumulation, as with chemical
fertilization. Efforts in environmentally friendly agriculture in
Japan started from negotiations of the “agriculture and environment” relationship agreed in the Uruguay Round of GATT
in 1993, after undergoing “sustainable development” proposed
by the World Commission on Environment and Development
(Brundtland Commission) in 1987.
The Japanese government defined environmentally
friendly agriculture as “agricultural production practice that
has a low impact on the environment with reduced chemical
fertilizers and pesticides, by taking measures such as soil
conditioning (‘Tsuchi-Zukuri’ in Japanese) and emphasizing
harmony of the environment with agriculture and fully
understanding the material cycling function of agriculture.”
In 1999, the Act on Promotion of Introduction of Sustainable Agricultural Production Practices and the Act on the
Appropriate Treatment and Promotion of Utilization of
Livestock Manure were enacted. The fertilization standards
were defined following these acts. For example, the Hokkaido Fertilizer Recommendations 2015 is now used in
Hokkaido (see Chapter 5).
References
Fifth Committee for Soil Classification and Nomenclature of Japanese
Society of Pedology (2017) Soil classification system of Japan. (in
Japanese)
Forestry Agency in Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
(2018). Forestry coverage and planted forest coverage data at
2012/3/31. (in Japanese) http://www.rinya.maff.go.jp/j/keikaku/
genkyou/h24/1.html
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, (2018a). Statistics of crops.
(in Japanese) http://www.maff.go.jp/j/tokei/kouhyou/sakumotu/
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries. (2018b). Livestock
statistics. (in Japanese) https://www.e-stat.go.jp/stat-search/files?
page=1&layout=datalist&toukei=00500222&tstat=
000001015614&cycle=7&year=20160&month=0&tclass1=
000001020206&tclass2=000001088855
Nira R (2013) A new frame work for study of irrigated paddy rice and
upland crops rotation farming and its relation to soil and plant
nutrition science. 4 The declines of soil fertility of drained paddy
fields under crops rotation and its fertility management. Japanese J
Soil Sci Plant Nutr 84:487–492 (in Japanese)
Oda K, Miwa E, Iwamoto A (1987) Database of representative soil
profiles surveyed in fundamental soil survey for soil fertility.
Japanese J Soil Sci Plant Nutr 58:112–131 (in Japanese)
OECD (2008) Environmental performance of agriculture in OECD
countries since 1990. p 575. OECD Publication, Paris
Soil genesis and classification laboratory, National Institute for
Agro-Environmental Sciences (1996) typology and regional characteristics of clay mineral composition in lowland soil in Japan.
http://www.naro.affrc.go.jp/archive/niaes/sinfo/result/result13/
result13_02.html. National Institute for Agro-Environmental
Sciences, Tsukuba. (in Japanese)
1 Overview
9