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M. Kasim
seagrasses. The low support of coastal ecosystems due to the effects of climate change
will encourage people to find an alternative livelihoods as a strategy to adapt to climate
change. Furthermore, changes in the ecosystem will minimize options for the coastal
community to utilize available resources in the coastal habitat. Some people however
maintain/cultivate seaweed (Kappaphycus alvarezii, Eucheuma denticulatum, and
Gracilaria sp.) as an alternative source of livelihood.
Keywords Coral reefs · Mangroves · Seaweed · Climate change · Coastal areas
Introduction
Coastal areas could be affected by climate change in a variety of ways. There is
strong evidence explaining that climate change causes significant changes across
the world’s oceans such as increased ocean temperatures, ocean acidification, and
sea level rise during the twentieth century (McClanahan 2015; IPCC 2018), and
this condition is expected to continue (IPCC 2018). Climate change is expected to
affect ecosystems and species in the sea through various direct and indirect mechanisms (Brander 2007; Munday et al. 2008; Cheung et al. 2010; Ding et al. 2017).
Coastal areas are sensitive to human activity, environmental change such as sea level
rise, increases in precipitation frequency and intensity of storms from oceans, and
increases in ocean temperatures. Marine and coastal areas are among the world’s
most diverse ecosystem which can attract optimum utilization of resources. This
abundance of resources makes humans exploit almost every place in the sea to get
resources to support their lives. Barange et al. (2014) reported that the growing human
population and changes in food preferences increase world demand for fish, and other
marine resources, adding to the pressure on fisheries sustainability concerns. Among
countries that show high dependence on fisheries resources, those that have a strong
influence from climate change are in West Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
This condition causes coastal ecosystems to be vulnerable to human activity and
climate change. FAO explained that the vulnerability of an ecosystem is a condition
where the population or ecosystem experiences large changes due to short-term and
long-term disturbances, and this ecosystem will be able to recover within a certain
period of time.
Indonesia is a country in Southeast Asia that is vulnerable to climate change
(Aldrian et al 2011; Taylor 2015; Djalante and Thomalla 2012). Physical and biological pressures occur not only by population growth and its relation to dependence
on resources (Solecki et al. 2015; Takagi et al. 2014; McGranahan et al. 2007).
Moreover, the effects of climate change have changed the pattern of distribution
and availability of marine resources (Handayani et al. 2017). Eastern Indonesia is
experiencing significant pressure from climate change. This pressure really has an
impact on the amount of resources that can be utilized by small fishermen and coastal
communities. Observed and anticipated changes in the global climate present significant opportunities and challenges for society and the economy. This vulnerability
M. Kasim
seagrasses. The low support of coastal ecosystems due to the effects of climate change
will encourage people to find an alternative livelihoods as a strategy to adapt to climate
change. Furthermore, changes in the ecosystem will minimize options for the coastal
community to utilize available resources in the coastal habitat. Some people however
maintain/cultivate seaweed (Kappaphycus alvarezii, Eucheuma denticulatum, and
Gracilaria sp.) as an alternative source of livelihood.
Keywords Coral reefs · Mangroves · Seaweed · Climate change · Coastal areas
Introduction
Coastal areas could be affected by climate change in a variety of ways. There is
strong evidence explaining that climate change causes significant changes across
the world’s oceans such as increased ocean temperatures, ocean acidification, and
sea level rise during the twentieth century (McClanahan 2015; IPCC 2018), and
this condition is expected to continue (IPCC 2018). Climate change is expected to
affect ecosystems and species in the sea through various direct and indirect mechanisms (Brander 2007; Munday et al. 2008; Cheung et al. 2010; Ding et al. 2017).
Coastal areas are sensitive to human activity, environmental change such as sea level
rise, increases in precipitation frequency and intensity of storms from oceans, and
increases in ocean temperatures. Marine and coastal areas are among the world’s
most diverse ecosystem which can attract optimum utilization of resources. This
abundance of resources makes humans exploit almost every place in the sea to get
resources to support their lives. Barange et al. (2014) reported that the growing human
population and changes in food preferences increase world demand for fish, and other
marine resources, adding to the pressure on fisheries sustainability concerns. Among
countries that show high dependence on fisheries resources, those that have a strong
influence from climate change are in West Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia.
This condition causes coastal ecosystems to be vulnerable to human activity and
climate change. FAO explained that the vulnerability of an ecosystem is a condition
where the population or ecosystem experiences large changes due to short-term and
long-term disturbances, and this ecosystem will be able to recover within a certain
period of time.
Indonesia is a country in Southeast Asia that is vulnerable to climate change
(Aldrian et al 2011; Taylor 2015; Djalante and Thomalla 2012). Physical and biological pressures occur not only by population growth and its relation to dependence
on resources (Solecki et al. 2015; Takagi et al. 2014; McGranahan et al. 2007).
Moreover, the effects of climate change have changed the pattern of distribution
and availability of marine resources (Handayani et al. 2017). Eastern Indonesia is
experiencing significant pressure from climate change. This pressure really has an
impact on the amount of resources that can be utilized by small fishermen and coastal
communities. Observed and anticipated changes in the global climate present significant opportunities and challenges for society and the economy. This vulnerability