velocities and water turbidity, contributing to water clarity and purification. Consequently, the experimental design included attributes such as “aesthetic benefits” and
“water visibility/clarity”. Such attributes are particularly important for divers as well
as for snorkelers and bathers who can enjoy the seascape beauty from the surface in
low depths.
RECONNECT also included attributes accruing from the underwater cultural
heritage, whose presence is preserved by seagrass. Posidonia oceanica has a particular function to lock out oxygen that otherwise degrades the archaeological remains
and to form a protective matt above these treasures. As a result, the “preservation of
underwater cultural heritage” was included in the design, assuming that the higher
the number of archaeological remains per extent area, the more possibilities to
capture cultural tourism preferences. The presence of underwater cultural spots of
importance to visit (such as widely known shipwrecks) increases the tourist attraction even to non-divers.
Other parameters taken into account but not monetized in both projects were the
underwater seascape (the more “beautiful” the underwater scenery that snorkelers
and divers will come across, the higher is the possibility to be willing to visit or to
preserve it), the diversity of substrate type (the wider the substrate, the more
opportunities for bather/snorkelers/divers to visit the area more than once) and the
spots with extraordinary fish productivity (the higher the fish stock, the higher the
education opportunities). Other attributes are made up of existing diving routes
(qualified tour operators and diving centres can showcase the MPA and increase
the perceived value of diving. Routes that are tested and divided to levels of
difficulty are more attractive to divers), level of diving difficulty (the deeper the
scenery to visit (shipwrecks, reefs, tunnels, etc.), the less divers can access) and
seabed quality (the existence of rock formations, archways, tunnels and vertical
walls offers a very particular experience to snorkelers and divers).
8.4.2 Non-monetary Valuation
For non-monetary valuation of CES within the MPA framework, qualitative information may come from previous research related to sociocultural value of ecosystems,
such as Bryce et al. (2016) and Schmidt et al. (2016). Bryce et al. (2016) presented
Likert-scale indicators from known constructs, such as the reflection and sense of
wholeness (Dallimer et al. 2012; Fuller et al. 2007; Irvine et al. 2010), the sense of
place identity and continuity with the past (Dallimer et al. 2012; Fuller et al. 2007;
Tengberg et al. 2012), the transformative values and inspiration (Chan et al. 2012a, b)
as well as some newly suggested well-being indicators inspired by other scales, like
the Human Scale Development Matrix (Cruz et al. 2009; Max-Neef 1989), the
Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment (Natural England 2012) and
the UK National Ecosystem Assessment of Cultural Services (Church et al. 2011).
A number of identified factors and corresponding indicators have been identified,
such as the engagement and interaction with nature, the place identity and
8 Monetary and Non-monetary Valuation of Cultural Ecosystem Services in Marine. . .
131
“water visibility/clarity”. Such attributes are particularly important for divers as well
as for snorkelers and bathers who can enjoy the seascape beauty from the surface in
low depths.
RECONNECT also included attributes accruing from the underwater cultural
heritage, whose presence is preserved by seagrass. Posidonia oceanica has a particular function to lock out oxygen that otherwise degrades the archaeological remains
and to form a protective matt above these treasures. As a result, the “preservation of
underwater cultural heritage” was included in the design, assuming that the higher
the number of archaeological remains per extent area, the more possibilities to
capture cultural tourism preferences. The presence of underwater cultural spots of
importance to visit (such as widely known shipwrecks) increases the tourist attraction even to non-divers.
Other parameters taken into account but not monetized in both projects were the
underwater seascape (the more “beautiful” the underwater scenery that snorkelers
and divers will come across, the higher is the possibility to be willing to visit or to
preserve it), the diversity of substrate type (the wider the substrate, the more
opportunities for bather/snorkelers/divers to visit the area more than once) and the
spots with extraordinary fish productivity (the higher the fish stock, the higher the
education opportunities). Other attributes are made up of existing diving routes
(qualified tour operators and diving centres can showcase the MPA and increase
the perceived value of diving. Routes that are tested and divided to levels of
difficulty are more attractive to divers), level of diving difficulty (the deeper the
scenery to visit (shipwrecks, reefs, tunnels, etc.), the less divers can access) and
seabed quality (the existence of rock formations, archways, tunnels and vertical
walls offers a very particular experience to snorkelers and divers).
8.4.2 Non-monetary Valuation
For non-monetary valuation of CES within the MPA framework, qualitative information may come from previous research related to sociocultural value of ecosystems,
such as Bryce et al. (2016) and Schmidt et al. (2016). Bryce et al. (2016) presented
Likert-scale indicators from known constructs, such as the reflection and sense of
wholeness (Dallimer et al. 2012; Fuller et al. 2007; Irvine et al. 2010), the sense of
place identity and continuity with the past (Dallimer et al. 2012; Fuller et al. 2007;
Tengberg et al. 2012), the transformative values and inspiration (Chan et al. 2012a, b)
as well as some newly suggested well-being indicators inspired by other scales, like
the Human Scale Development Matrix (Cruz et al. 2009; Max-Neef 1989), the
Monitor of Engagement with the Natural Environment (Natural England 2012) and
the UK National Ecosystem Assessment of Cultural Services (Church et al. 2011).
A number of identified factors and corresponding indicators have been identified,
such as the engagement and interaction with nature, the place identity and
8 Monetary and Non-monetary Valuation of Cultural Ecosystem Services in Marine. . .
131