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1 Wastes Generation, Characterization, Management Strategies …
the respiratory systems of humans and animals, and causes damage to vegetation.
The acid form of SO 2 can contribute to the acidification of aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems and the sulfate particles could contribute to the formation and emission
of fine particulate matter (PM 25 ) by reacting with ammonia in the atmosphere. PM 25
has adverse effects on human health and the environment and can lead to visibility
impairment and regional haze [13]. 60–70% of the total SO x emissions were produced
from the ore/mineral and oil/gas industries, and 20–30% were from the electric power
generation, as shown previously in Table 1.7 [2, 41].
(2) Nitrogen oxides (NO x )
NO x are a group of gases consisting mainly of nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO 2 ), formed in all types of combustions in air via the pathways of thermalNO x , fuel-NO x and prompt-NO x . NO 2 can dissolve in water vapor in the air or rain,
forming nitric acid and other products. Nitrogen oxides and nitric acid can cause
adverse effects on respiratory systems of humans and animals, can cause damage to
vegetation, and materials and contribute to the acidification of aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems. NO 2 and volatile organic compounds can form ground-level ozone and
PM 25 . Between 1985 and 2009, transportation was the highest emitter of nitrogen
oxides, responsible for more than half of the NO x emissions, while other industrial
sectors were the second largest source of NO x emission (Table 1.7) [2,41].
(3) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
VOCs are carbon-containing gases and vapors, excluding carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbons, that participate in atmospheric photochemical reactions [2,13]. Most VOCs have direct toxic effects on human health
such as carcinogenesis or neurotoxicity. The more reactive VOCs can combine
with nitrogen oxides (NO x ) in photochemical reactions in the atmosphere and form
ground-level ozone (which is a major component of smog) and PM 25 [13]. In 2009,
more than 92% of the VOC emissions were from natural resources, while industrial and transportation sectors were responsible for the second and third highest
emissions [2].
(4) Carbon monoxide (CO)
CO is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas, produced from the incomplete combustion of organic matters. It can enter the bloodstream through the lungs and form
carboxyhemoglobin, a compound that inhibits the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen
to the organs and tissues. It can lead to impairing exercise capacity, affect visual
perception, manual dexterity, learning functions, and ability to perform complex
tasks, and cause the death of human being at excessive exposure [13]. On average,
exposures at 100 ppm or greater is dangerous to human health [42]. Commonly the
major source of carbon monoxide emissions is transportation [2, 41].
(5) Particulate matter (PM)
PM is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets that get
into the air. Total Particulate Matter (TPM) refers to the particles with a diameter of
1 Wastes Generation, Characterization, Management Strategies …
the respiratory systems of humans and animals, and causes damage to vegetation.
The acid form of SO 2 can contribute to the acidification of aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems and the sulfate particles could contribute to the formation and emission
of fine particulate matter (PM 25 ) by reacting with ammonia in the atmosphere. PM 25
has adverse effects on human health and the environment and can lead to visibility
impairment and regional haze [13]. 60–70% of the total SO x emissions were produced
from the ore/mineral and oil/gas industries, and 20–30% were from the electric power
generation, as shown previously in Table 1.7 [2, 41].
(2) Nitrogen oxides (NO x )
NO x are a group of gases consisting mainly of nitrogen oxide (NO) and nitrogen
dioxide (NO 2 ), formed in all types of combustions in air via the pathways of thermalNO x , fuel-NO x and prompt-NO x . NO 2 can dissolve in water vapor in the air or rain,
forming nitric acid and other products. Nitrogen oxides and nitric acid can cause
adverse effects on respiratory systems of humans and animals, can cause damage to
vegetation, and materials and contribute to the acidification of aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems. NO 2 and volatile organic compounds can form ground-level ozone and
PM 25 . Between 1985 and 2009, transportation was the highest emitter of nitrogen
oxides, responsible for more than half of the NO x emissions, while other industrial
sectors were the second largest source of NO x emission (Table 1.7) [2,41].
(3) Volatile organic compounds (VOCs).
VOCs are carbon-containing gases and vapors, excluding carbon dioxide, carbon
monoxide, methane and chlorofluorocarbons, that participate in atmospheric photochemical reactions [2,13]. Most VOCs have direct toxic effects on human health
such as carcinogenesis or neurotoxicity. The more reactive VOCs can combine
with nitrogen oxides (NO x ) in photochemical reactions in the atmosphere and form
ground-level ozone (which is a major component of smog) and PM 25 [13]. In 2009,
more than 92% of the VOC emissions were from natural resources, while industrial and transportation sectors were responsible for the second and third highest
emissions [2].
(4) Carbon monoxide (CO)
CO is a colorless, odorless and tasteless gas, produced from the incomplete combustion of organic matters. It can enter the bloodstream through the lungs and form
carboxyhemoglobin, a compound that inhibits the blood’s capacity to carry oxygen
to the organs and tissues. It can lead to impairing exercise capacity, affect visual
perception, manual dexterity, learning functions, and ability to perform complex
tasks, and cause the death of human being at excessive exposure [13]. On average,
exposures at 100 ppm or greater is dangerous to human health [42]. Commonly the
major source of carbon monoxide emissions is transportation [2, 41].
(5) Particulate matter (PM)
PM is a complex mixture of extremely small particles and liquid droplets that get
into the air. Total Particulate Matter (TPM) refers to the particles with a diameter of