43
Contemporary Machining Processes
of an implant, so that ion implantation can be divided into low-dose and high-dose
processes (Stepanov, 2019).
Ion implantation techniques introduce elements into target surfaces through
implantation of ions that are typically accelerated to energies between 20 and
200 keV. This process operates in a high-vacuum environment and the ions are able
to penetrate solid materials up to the depth of several nanometers, which increases
as bias voltage rises (Gan and Berndt, 2015). One of the most valuable aspects of
ion implantation consists in creating surface layers with enhanced wear or corrosion
resistance without significant dimensional changes. For instance, creation of nitrides
through nitrogen implantation, near-surface TiC through implantation of Ti followed
by C, or ion beam mixing of thin RF-deposited surface layers of Al, Si, Mo, and W
into steel, all result in geometric changes of less than 100 nm, yet combined with significant improvements in wear and friction properties (Halada and Clayton, 2012).
Particularly interesting results were obtained on enhancement of commercially
available ceramic and cermet cutting tools. The cermet cutting inserts underwent
implantation with ions of nitrogen and combination of N + with Al + , which reduced
the cutting force tangential component F c by 15 and 20% and the feeding component
F f by 35 and 40%, while the wear parameter VB C diminished by 75 and 65%, respectively (Morozow et al., 2018). Implanted with Si + and Si + /N + , carbide inserts hardness
grew by 10%, friction coefficient reduced by ca. 30%, and, during machining tests,
exhibited smaller cutting forces and higher wear resistance than inserts without an
additional ion implanted layer (Narojczyk et al., 2018). Yttrium and rhenium ion
implantation also had impact on tribological properties (Morozow et al., 2019) and
cutting performance of nitride ceramic cutting tools (Morozow et al., 2020). Namely,
the lowest and the most stable friction force of between 12 and 40 N occurred in
IS9 ceramics with yttrium coating (F 0 = 2 × 10 17 ion/cm 2 ) during 800 s of testing,
while unimplanted IS9 reached 60 N. Both rhenium and yttrium ions improved wear
resistance of IN22 ceramics to a similar degree. VB N values of wear for implanted
tools were at least 20% and at best 75% lower than in the case of non-implanted
ones. Cemented tungsten carbide guide pads implanted with 1:1 N 2
+ and N + ions at
60 kV acceleration voltage were able to manufacture two times more holes than nonimplanted ones (Morozow et al., 2021). At least two mechanisms can be attributed
to the increased durability of the nitrogen implanted (WC)-Co guide pads, namely
carbon lubrication and nitride strengthening.
1.10 LASER MATERIAL PROCESSING
As emphasized by Shoemaker (2003),
since the operation of the first laser in 1960, literally hundreds of different laser varieties have been developed and the light that they produce is being used in thousands of
applications ranging from precision measurement to materials processing to medicine.
According to Gefvert et al. (2019), almost 60% of laser applications can be categorized as material processing and communications, ca. 30% belong to research, development and military sectors, instrumentation and sensors, medical and aesthetic
Contemporary Machining Processes
of an implant, so that ion implantation can be divided into low-dose and high-dose
processes (Stepanov, 2019).
Ion implantation techniques introduce elements into target surfaces through
implantation of ions that are typically accelerated to energies between 20 and
200 keV. This process operates in a high-vacuum environment and the ions are able
to penetrate solid materials up to the depth of several nanometers, which increases
as bias voltage rises (Gan and Berndt, 2015). One of the most valuable aspects of
ion implantation consists in creating surface layers with enhanced wear or corrosion
resistance without significant dimensional changes. For instance, creation of nitrides
through nitrogen implantation, near-surface TiC through implantation of Ti followed
by C, or ion beam mixing of thin RF-deposited surface layers of Al, Si, Mo, and W
into steel, all result in geometric changes of less than 100 nm, yet combined with significant improvements in wear and friction properties (Halada and Clayton, 2012).
Particularly interesting results were obtained on enhancement of commercially
available ceramic and cermet cutting tools. The cermet cutting inserts underwent
implantation with ions of nitrogen and combination of N + with Al + , which reduced
the cutting force tangential component F c by 15 and 20% and the feeding component
F f by 35 and 40%, while the wear parameter VB C diminished by 75 and 65%, respectively (Morozow et al., 2018). Implanted with Si + and Si + /N + , carbide inserts hardness
grew by 10%, friction coefficient reduced by ca. 30%, and, during machining tests,
exhibited smaller cutting forces and higher wear resistance than inserts without an
additional ion implanted layer (Narojczyk et al., 2018). Yttrium and rhenium ion
implantation also had impact on tribological properties (Morozow et al., 2019) and
cutting performance of nitride ceramic cutting tools (Morozow et al., 2020). Namely,
the lowest and the most stable friction force of between 12 and 40 N occurred in
IS9 ceramics with yttrium coating (F 0 = 2 × 10 17 ion/cm 2 ) during 800 s of testing,
while unimplanted IS9 reached 60 N. Both rhenium and yttrium ions improved wear
resistance of IN22 ceramics to a similar degree. VB N values of wear for implanted
tools were at least 20% and at best 75% lower than in the case of non-implanted
ones. Cemented tungsten carbide guide pads implanted with 1:1 N 2
+ and N + ions at
60 kV acceleration voltage were able to manufacture two times more holes than nonimplanted ones (Morozow et al., 2021). At least two mechanisms can be attributed
to the increased durability of the nitrogen implanted (WC)-Co guide pads, namely
carbon lubrication and nitride strengthening.
1.10 LASER MATERIAL PROCESSING
As emphasized by Shoemaker (2003),
since the operation of the first laser in 1960, literally hundreds of different laser varieties have been developed and the light that they produce is being used in thousands of
applications ranging from precision measurement to materials processing to medicine.
According to Gefvert et al. (2019), almost 60% of laser applications can be categorized as material processing and communications, ca. 30% belong to research, development and military sectors, instrumentation and sensors, medical and aesthetic