158
Sensemaking in Safety Critical and Complex Situations
references are provided in a relatively more prescriptive approach to bridge design
( e.g. International Electrotechnical Commission, 2008; International Maritime
Organization, 2000, 2004; International Organization for Standardization, 2007).
However, in totality, detailed aspects of digital interface design guidance are still
lacking. Efforts have been made by regulators and industry stakeholders to standardize aspects of GUI across the industry, such as symbols ( International Maritime
Organization, 2019a, 2019b) and for new technology development and deployment,
such as the introduction of ECDIS ( International Maritime Organization, 2017). Even
guidelines from supporting classification bodies and regulatory authorities fail to capture necessary design guidance, not only for the bridge but for other operational areas
of a ship, including the engine department ( Mallam & Lundh, 2013).
As equipment and operations increasingly digitize, there is an opportunity to create
design guidelines that support design consistency across all systems for multivendor
and integrated bridges. Creating design consistency across equipment in the bridge
will lead to positive outcomes in navigational operations and support-enhanced sensemaking of seafarers. This cannot be captured in regulations or design guidance
alone. Rather, it must also be integrated with practical and usable processes that
enable the application of knowledge and design guidance throughout ship and bridge
development. This must engage the identified industry stakeholders and ultimately
add value to the process and its outcomes.
SUPPORTING SENSEMAKING THROUGH DESIGN
Sensemaking is the process of turning circumstances into a situational understanding
in which we can react upon ( Weick, Stutcliffe & Obstfeld, 2005; Taylor & Van Every,
2000). By emphasizing sensemaking in the design process we aim to rationalize the
user’s actions by understanding how cognitive activities are employed to experience
meaning in an interaction situation ( Weick, 1993). These activities involve perceiving and interpreting sensory data, formulating and using information, and managing
attention ( Bartscherer & Coover, 2011). Although complex information spaces, such
as a ship’s bridge, continue to expand extensively as technology and automation develops, human capabilities and information processing struggle to adapt and successfully
manage the complexity of operational systems ( Bainbridge, 1983). According to Chia
( 2000), conception is shaped through “ differentiating, fixing, naming, labelling, classifying and relating” sense-impressions systematically to construct our experience of
social reality. Therefore, digital sensemaking requires mediation in order to meet the
user’s needs by labelling and categorizing content and choices in user interfaces to
balance the streaming of experience ( Weick, Sutcliffe & Obstfeld, 2005). Consistent
user interface design is a strategy for digital sensemaking that not only supports easier
interpretation, improved usability and productivity but also enhances the possibility
to transfer skills across systems because users are able to predict how interfaces will
look and function due to familiarity and experience ( Nielsen, 2002). This makes the
user more “ fluent” when operating known systems and even new systems on first
encounter. This is particularly relevant for many sectors of the maritime domain due
to the nature and variability in how seafarer employment is organized. Although some
seafarers may work within a single company, or even a single ship for years, there is a
Sensemaking in Safety Critical and Complex Situations
references are provided in a relatively more prescriptive approach to bridge design
( e.g. International Electrotechnical Commission, 2008; International Maritime
Organization, 2000, 2004; International Organization for Standardization, 2007).
However, in totality, detailed aspects of digital interface design guidance are still
lacking. Efforts have been made by regulators and industry stakeholders to standardize aspects of GUI across the industry, such as symbols ( International Maritime
Organization, 2019a, 2019b) and for new technology development and deployment,
such as the introduction of ECDIS ( International Maritime Organization, 2017). Even
guidelines from supporting classification bodies and regulatory authorities fail to capture necessary design guidance, not only for the bridge but for other operational areas
of a ship, including the engine department ( Mallam & Lundh, 2013).
As equipment and operations increasingly digitize, there is an opportunity to create
design guidelines that support design consistency across all systems for multivendor
and integrated bridges. Creating design consistency across equipment in the bridge
will lead to positive outcomes in navigational operations and support-enhanced sensemaking of seafarers. This cannot be captured in regulations or design guidance
alone. Rather, it must also be integrated with practical and usable processes that
enable the application of knowledge and design guidance throughout ship and bridge
development. This must engage the identified industry stakeholders and ultimately
add value to the process and its outcomes.
SUPPORTING SENSEMAKING THROUGH DESIGN
Sensemaking is the process of turning circumstances into a situational understanding
in which we can react upon ( Weick, Stutcliffe & Obstfeld, 2005; Taylor & Van Every,
2000). By emphasizing sensemaking in the design process we aim to rationalize the
user’s actions by understanding how cognitive activities are employed to experience
meaning in an interaction situation ( Weick, 1993). These activities involve perceiving and interpreting sensory data, formulating and using information, and managing
attention ( Bartscherer & Coover, 2011). Although complex information spaces, such
as a ship’s bridge, continue to expand extensively as technology and automation develops, human capabilities and information processing struggle to adapt and successfully
manage the complexity of operational systems ( Bainbridge, 1983). According to Chia
( 2000), conception is shaped through “ differentiating, fixing, naming, labelling, classifying and relating” sense-impressions systematically to construct our experience of
social reality. Therefore, digital sensemaking requires mediation in order to meet the
user’s needs by labelling and categorizing content and choices in user interfaces to
balance the streaming of experience ( Weick, Sutcliffe & Obstfeld, 2005). Consistent
user interface design is a strategy for digital sensemaking that not only supports easier
interpretation, improved usability and productivity but also enhances the possibility
to transfer skills across systems because users are able to predict how interfaces will
look and function due to familiarity and experience ( Nielsen, 2002). This makes the
user more “ fluent” when operating known systems and even new systems on first
encounter. This is particularly relevant for many sectors of the maritime domain due
to the nature and variability in how seafarer employment is organized. Although some
seafarers may work within a single company, or even a single ship for years, there is a