536
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum
with the primary catalysts and are available separately in compositions that (1) enhance gasoline
octane and light olefin formation, (2) selectively crack heavy cycle oil, (3) passivate vanadium
and nickel present in many heavy feedstocks, (4) oxidize coke to carbon dioxide, and (5) reduce
sulfur dioxide emissions.
Both vanadium and nickel deposit on the cracking catalyst and are extremely deleterious when
present in excess of 3000 ppm on the catalyst. Formulation changes to the catalyst can improve
tolerance to vanadium and nickel but the use of additives that specifically passivate either metal is
often preferred.
Finally, a process that uses an additive—the Aquaconversion process (Figure 19.3)—is a hydrovisbreaking technology that uses catalyst-activated transfer of hydrogen from water added to the
feedstock. Reactions that lead to coke formation are suppressed, and there is no separation of
asphaltene-type material. Because of the use of an additive/catalyst in the hydrogen transfer process, the aquaconversion can also be classified as a catalytic process.
REFERENCES
Ancheyta, J. and Speight, J.G. 2007. Hydroprocessing of Heavy Oils and Residua. Taylor & Francis Group,
Boca Raton, FL.
Avidan, A.A., Edwards, M., and Owen, H. 1990. Innovative improvements highlight FCC’s past and future. Oil
& Gas Journal 88(2): 33–58.
Avidan, A.A. and Krambeck, F.J. 1990. FCC closed cyclone system eliminates post riser cracking. Proceedings
of Annual Meeting of National Petrochemical and Refiners Association.
Avidan, A.A. and Shinnar, R. 1990. Development of catalytic cracking technology. A lesson in chemical reactor
design. Industrial Engineering and Chemical Research 29: 931–947.
Bartholic, D.B. 1981a. Preparation of FCC charge from residual fractions. US Patent 4,243,514, January 6.
Bartholic, D.B. 1981b. Upgrading petroleum and residual fractions thereof. US Patent 4,263,128, April 21.
Bartholic, D.B. 1989. Process for upgrading tar sand bitumen. US Patent 4,804,459. February 14.
Bartholic, D.B. and Haseltine, R.P. 1981. New crude/resid treating process offers savings. Oil & Gas Journal
79(45): 242.
Bland, W.F. and Davidson. R.L. 1967. Petroleum Processing Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bradley, S.A., Gattuso, M.J., and Bertolacini, R.J. 1989. Characterization and catalyst development. Symposium
Series No. 411. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
DeCroocq, D. 1984. Catalytic Cracking of Heavy Petroleum Hydrocarbons. Editions Technip, Paris, France.
Gerber, M.A., Fulton, J.L., Frye, J.G., Silva, L.J., Bowman, L.E., and Wai, C.M. 1999. Regeneration of
hydrotreating and FCC catalysts. Report No. PNNL-13025. US Department of Energy Contract
No. DE-AC06-76RLO 1830. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA.
Germain, G.E. 1969. Catalytic Conversion of Hydrocarbons. Academic Press, New York.
Heinrich, G. and Mauleon, J.-L. 1994. The R2R process: 21st century FCC technology. Revue Institut Français
du Pétrole 49(5): 509–520.
Hemler, C.L. 1997. In Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, R.A. Meyers (Ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York,
Chapter 3.3.
Hunt, D.A. 1997. In Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, R.A. Meyers (Ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York,
Chapter 3.5.
Inai, K, 1994. Operation results of the R2R process. Revue Institut Français du Pétrole 49(5): 521–527.
Johnson, T.E. and Niccum, P.K. 1997. In Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, R.A. Meyers (Ed.).
McGraw-Hill, New York, Chapter 3.2.
Ladwig, P.K. 1997. In Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, R.A. Meyers (Ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York,
Chapter 3.1.
LePage, J.F., Cosyns, J., Courty, P., Freund, E., Franck, J.P., Jacquin, Y., Juguin, B. et al. 1987. Applied
Heterogeneous Catalysis. Editions Technip, Paris, France.
LePage, L.F., Chatila, S.G., and Davidson, M. 1992. Resid and Heavy Oil Processing. Editions Technip,
Paris, France.
Letzsch, W.S. 2009. Deep catalytic cracking process. US Patent 7,479,218. January 20.
Long, S.L., Johnson, A.R., and Dharia, D. 1993. Advances in residual oil FCC. Proceedings of Annual Meeting
of National Petrochemical and Refiners Association. Paper AM-93-50.
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum
with the primary catalysts and are available separately in compositions that (1) enhance gasoline
octane and light olefin formation, (2) selectively crack heavy cycle oil, (3) passivate vanadium
and nickel present in many heavy feedstocks, (4) oxidize coke to carbon dioxide, and (5) reduce
sulfur dioxide emissions.
Both vanadium and nickel deposit on the cracking catalyst and are extremely deleterious when
present in excess of 3000 ppm on the catalyst. Formulation changes to the catalyst can improve
tolerance to vanadium and nickel but the use of additives that specifically passivate either metal is
often preferred.
Finally, a process that uses an additive—the Aquaconversion process (Figure 19.3)—is a hydrovisbreaking technology that uses catalyst-activated transfer of hydrogen from water added to the
feedstock. Reactions that lead to coke formation are suppressed, and there is no separation of
asphaltene-type material. Because of the use of an additive/catalyst in the hydrogen transfer process, the aquaconversion can also be classified as a catalytic process.
REFERENCES
Ancheyta, J. and Speight, J.G. 2007. Hydroprocessing of Heavy Oils and Residua. Taylor & Francis Group,
Boca Raton, FL.
Avidan, A.A., Edwards, M., and Owen, H. 1990. Innovative improvements highlight FCC’s past and future. Oil
& Gas Journal 88(2): 33–58.
Avidan, A.A. and Krambeck, F.J. 1990. FCC closed cyclone system eliminates post riser cracking. Proceedings
of Annual Meeting of National Petrochemical and Refiners Association.
Avidan, A.A. and Shinnar, R. 1990. Development of catalytic cracking technology. A lesson in chemical reactor
design. Industrial Engineering and Chemical Research 29: 931–947.
Bartholic, D.B. 1981a. Preparation of FCC charge from residual fractions. US Patent 4,243,514, January 6.
Bartholic, D.B. 1981b. Upgrading petroleum and residual fractions thereof. US Patent 4,263,128, April 21.
Bartholic, D.B. 1989. Process for upgrading tar sand bitumen. US Patent 4,804,459. February 14.
Bartholic, D.B. and Haseltine, R.P. 1981. New crude/resid treating process offers savings. Oil & Gas Journal
79(45): 242.
Bland, W.F. and Davidson. R.L. 1967. Petroleum Processing Handbook. McGraw-Hill, New York.
Bradley, S.A., Gattuso, M.J., and Bertolacini, R.J. 1989. Characterization and catalyst development. Symposium
Series No. 411. American Chemical Society, Washington, DC.
DeCroocq, D. 1984. Catalytic Cracking of Heavy Petroleum Hydrocarbons. Editions Technip, Paris, France.
Gerber, M.A., Fulton, J.L., Frye, J.G., Silva, L.J., Bowman, L.E., and Wai, C.M. 1999. Regeneration of
hydrotreating and FCC catalysts. Report No. PNNL-13025. US Department of Energy Contract
No. DE-AC06-76RLO 1830. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA.
Germain, G.E. 1969. Catalytic Conversion of Hydrocarbons. Academic Press, New York.
Heinrich, G. and Mauleon, J.-L. 1994. The R2R process: 21st century FCC technology. Revue Institut Français
du Pétrole 49(5): 509–520.
Hemler, C.L. 1997. In Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, R.A. Meyers (Ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York,
Chapter 3.3.
Hunt, D.A. 1997. In Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, R.A. Meyers (Ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York,
Chapter 3.5.
Inai, K, 1994. Operation results of the R2R process. Revue Institut Français du Pétrole 49(5): 521–527.
Johnson, T.E. and Niccum, P.K. 1997. In Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, R.A. Meyers (Ed.).
McGraw-Hill, New York, Chapter 3.2.
Ladwig, P.K. 1997. In Handbook of Petroleum Refining Processes, R.A. Meyers (Ed.). McGraw-Hill, New York,
Chapter 3.1.
LePage, J.F., Cosyns, J., Courty, P., Freund, E., Franck, J.P., Jacquin, Y., Juguin, B. et al. 1987. Applied
Heterogeneous Catalysis. Editions Technip, Paris, France.
LePage, L.F., Chatila, S.G., and Davidson, M. 1992. Resid and Heavy Oil Processing. Editions Technip,
Paris, France.
Letzsch, W.S. 2009. Deep catalytic cracking process. US Patent 7,479,218. January 20.
Long, S.L., Johnson, A.R., and Dharia, D. 1993. Advances in residual oil FCC. Proceedings of Annual Meeting
of National Petrochemical and Refiners Association. Paper AM-93-50.