387
Instability and Incompatibility
slow reaction, because the observed increase in hydroperoxide concentration is dependent on the
dissolved oxygen content (Mayo and Lan, 1987; Mushrush and Speight, 1995).
The third incompatibility mechanism involves degradation when the product is stored for
prolonged periods, as might occur during stockpiling of fuel for military use (Stavinoha and
Westbrook, 1980; Goetzinger et al., 1983; Cooney et al., 1985; Hazlett and Hall, 1985). This incompatibility process involves (1) the buildup of hydroperoxide moieties after the gum reactions;
(2) a free-radical reaction with the various organo-sulfur compounds present that can be oxidized
to sulfonic acids; and (3) reactions such as condensations between organo-sulfur and nitrogen compounds and esterification reactions.
Incompatibility during refining can occur in a variety of processes, either by intent (such as in
the deasphalting process) or inadvertently when the separation is detrimental to the process. Thus,
separation of solids occurs whenever the solvent characteristics of the liquid phase are no longer
adequate to maintain polar and/or high molecular weight material in solution.
Examples of such occurrences are (1) asphaltene separation that occurs when the paraffinic
nature of the liquid medium increases (Chapters 9, 10, and 12); (2) wax separation that occurs
when there is a drop in temperature or the aromaticity of the liquid medium increases (Chapter 20);
(3) sludge/sediment formation in a reactor that occurs when the solvent characteristics of the liquid
medium change so that asphaltic or wax materials separate, coke formation that occurs at high
temperatures and commences when the solvent power of the liquid phase is not sufficient to maintain the coke precursors in solution (Chapter 16), and sludge/sediment formation in fuel products
which occurs because of the interplay of several chemical and physical factors (Mushrush and
Speight, 1995).
REFERENCES
Abraham, H. 1945. Asphalts and Allied Substances, Vol. I, 5th edn. Van Nostrand Inc., New York, p. 1.
ASTM. 2012. Annual Book of Standards. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
Batts, B.D. and Fathoni, A.Z. 1991. A literature review on fuel stability studies with particular emphasis on
diesel oil. Energy & Fuels 5: 2–21.
Browarzik, D., Laux, H., and Rahimian, I. 1999. Asphaltene flocculation in crude oil systems. Fluid Phase
Equilibria 154: 285–300.
Cooney, J.V., Beal, E.J., and Hazlett, R.N. 1985. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Product Research and
Development 24: 294.
Forbes, R.J. 1958a. A History of Technology, Vol. V. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., p. 102.
Forbes, R.J. 1958b. In Studies in Early Petroleum Chemistry, E.J. Brill (Ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands.
Forbes, R.J. 1959. In More Studies in Early Petroleum Chemistry, E.J. Brill (Ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands.
Goetzinger, J.W., Thompson, C.J., and Brinkman, D.W. 1983. A review of storage stability characteristics of
hydrocarbon fuels. US Department of Energy, Report No. DOE/BETC/IC-83-3.
Hardy, D.R. and Wechter, M.A. 1990. Insoluble sediment formation in middle-distillate diesel fuel: The role of
soluble macromolecular oxidatively reactive species. Energy & Fuels 4: 270–274.
Hazlett, R.N. 1992. Thermal Oxidation Stability of Aviation Turbine Fuels. Monograph No. 1. American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
Hazlett, R.N. and Hall J.M. 1985. In Chemistry of Engine Combustion Deposits, L.B. Ebert (Ed.). Plenum
Press, New York.
Hiley, R.W. and Pedley, J.F. 1987. Fuel 67: 1124.
Hiley, R.W. and Pedley, L.F. 1986. Formation of insolubles during storage of naval fuels. Proceedings of the
Second International Conference on Long-term Storage Stabilities of Liquid Fuels, San Antonio, TX,
pp. 570–584, July 29–August 1.
Hoffman, H.L. 1992. In Petroleum Processing Handbook, J.J. McKetta (Ed.). Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, p. 2.
James, P. and Thorpe, N. 1994. Ancient Inventions. Ballantine Books, New York.
Koots, J.A. and Speight, J.G. 1975. The relation of petroleum resins to asphaltenes. Fuel 54: 179.
Mayo, F.R. and Lan, B.Y. 1987. Gum and deposit formation from Jet. Turbine and diesel fuels at 100°C.
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development 26: 215.
Mitchell, D.L. and Speight, J.G. 1972. The solubility of asphaltenes in hydrocarbon solvents. Fuel 52: 149.
Instability and Incompatibility
slow reaction, because the observed increase in hydroperoxide concentration is dependent on the
dissolved oxygen content (Mayo and Lan, 1987; Mushrush and Speight, 1995).
The third incompatibility mechanism involves degradation when the product is stored for
prolonged periods, as might occur during stockpiling of fuel for military use (Stavinoha and
Westbrook, 1980; Goetzinger et al., 1983; Cooney et al., 1985; Hazlett and Hall, 1985). This incompatibility process involves (1) the buildup of hydroperoxide moieties after the gum reactions;
(2) a free-radical reaction with the various organo-sulfur compounds present that can be oxidized
to sulfonic acids; and (3) reactions such as condensations between organo-sulfur and nitrogen compounds and esterification reactions.
Incompatibility during refining can occur in a variety of processes, either by intent (such as in
the deasphalting process) or inadvertently when the separation is detrimental to the process. Thus,
separation of solids occurs whenever the solvent characteristics of the liquid phase are no longer
adequate to maintain polar and/or high molecular weight material in solution.
Examples of such occurrences are (1) asphaltene separation that occurs when the paraffinic
nature of the liquid medium increases (Chapters 9, 10, and 12); (2) wax separation that occurs
when there is a drop in temperature or the aromaticity of the liquid medium increases (Chapter 20);
(3) sludge/sediment formation in a reactor that occurs when the solvent characteristics of the liquid
medium change so that asphaltic or wax materials separate, coke formation that occurs at high
temperatures and commences when the solvent power of the liquid phase is not sufficient to maintain the coke precursors in solution (Chapter 16), and sludge/sediment formation in fuel products
which occurs because of the interplay of several chemical and physical factors (Mushrush and
Speight, 1995).
REFERENCES
Abraham, H. 1945. Asphalts and Allied Substances, Vol. I, 5th edn. Van Nostrand Inc., New York, p. 1.
ASTM. 2012. Annual Book of Standards. American Society for Testing and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA.
Batts, B.D. and Fathoni, A.Z. 1991. A literature review on fuel stability studies with particular emphasis on
diesel oil. Energy & Fuels 5: 2–21.
Browarzik, D., Laux, H., and Rahimian, I. 1999. Asphaltene flocculation in crude oil systems. Fluid Phase
Equilibria 154: 285–300.
Cooney, J.V., Beal, E.J., and Hazlett, R.N. 1985. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Product Research and
Development 24: 294.
Forbes, R.J. 1958a. A History of Technology, Vol. V. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K., p. 102.
Forbes, R.J. 1958b. In Studies in Early Petroleum Chemistry, E.J. Brill (Ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands.
Forbes, R.J. 1959. In More Studies in Early Petroleum Chemistry, E.J. Brill (Ed.). Leiden, the Netherlands.
Goetzinger, J.W., Thompson, C.J., and Brinkman, D.W. 1983. A review of storage stability characteristics of
hydrocarbon fuels. US Department of Energy, Report No. DOE/BETC/IC-83-3.
Hardy, D.R. and Wechter, M.A. 1990. Insoluble sediment formation in middle-distillate diesel fuel: The role of
soluble macromolecular oxidatively reactive species. Energy & Fuels 4: 270–274.
Hazlett, R.N. 1992. Thermal Oxidation Stability of Aviation Turbine Fuels. Monograph No. 1. American
Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, PA.
Hazlett, R.N. and Hall J.M. 1985. In Chemistry of Engine Combustion Deposits, L.B. Ebert (Ed.). Plenum
Press, New York.
Hiley, R.W. and Pedley, J.F. 1987. Fuel 67: 1124.
Hiley, R.W. and Pedley, L.F. 1986. Formation of insolubles during storage of naval fuels. Proceedings of the
Second International Conference on Long-term Storage Stabilities of Liquid Fuels, San Antonio, TX,
pp. 570–584, July 29–August 1.
Hoffman, H.L. 1992. In Petroleum Processing Handbook, J.J. McKetta (Ed.). Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, p. 2.
James, P. and Thorpe, N. 1994. Ancient Inventions. Ballantine Books, New York.
Koots, J.A. and Speight, J.G. 1975. The relation of petroleum resins to asphaltenes. Fuel 54: 179.
Mayo, F.R. and Lan, B.Y. 1987. Gum and deposit formation from Jet. Turbine and diesel fuels at 100°C.
Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Product Research and Development 26: 215.
Mitchell, D.L. and Speight, J.G. 1972. The solubility of asphaltenes in hydrocarbon solvents. Fuel 52: 149.