8
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum
The product mûmûia was used in prescriptions, as early as the twelfth century, by the Arabian
physician Al Magor, for the treatment of contusions and wounds. Its production soon became a
special industry in the Alexandria. The scientist Al-Kazwînî alluded to the healing properties of
mûmûia, and Ibn Al-Baitâr gives an account of its source and composition. Engelbert Kämpfer
(1651–1716) in his treatise Amoenitates Exoticae gives a detailed account of the gathering of
mûmûia, the different grades and types, and its curative properties in medicine. As the supply of
mummies was of course limited, other expedients came into vogue. The corpses of slaves or criminals were filled with asphalt, swathed, and artificially aged in the sun. This practice continued until
the French physician, Guy de la Fontaine, exposed the deception in 1564 AD.
Many other references to bitumen occur throughout the Greek and Roman empires, and from
then to the Middle Ages early scientists (alchemists) frequently alluded to the use of bitumen. In
later times, both Christopher Columbus and Sir Walter Raleigh (depending upon the country of
origin of the biographer) have been credited with the discovery of the asphalt deposit on the island
of Trinidad and apparently used the material to caulk their ships.
The use of petroleum has also been documented in China: As early as 600 BC (Owen, 1975), petroleum was encountered when drilling for salt and mention of petroleum as an impurity in the salt is also
noted in documents of the third century AD. In a more national context, there is also the suggestion of
pre-Columbian oil mining in ancient Pennsylvania. The precise nature of the oil is unknown although
the method of recovery indicates light oil. The oil was recovered by oil mining in which pits that were
oblong approximately 4 by 6 ft in depth and that were operated by allowing them to fill with water
overnight then skimming the oil on the surface into containers (Anderton, 2012).
There was also an interest in the thermal product of petroleum (nafta; naphtha) when it was discovered that this material could be used as an illuminant and as a supplement to asphalt incendiaries
in warfare. For example, there are records of the use of mixtures of pitch and/or naphtha with sulfur
as a weapon of war during the Battle of Palatea, Greece, in the year 429 BC (Forbes, 1959). There are
references to the use of a liquid material, naft (presumably the volatile fraction of petroleum that we
now call naphtha and that is used as a solvent or as a precursor to gasoline), as an incendiary material
during various battles of the pre-Christian era (James and Thorpe, 1994). This is the so-called Greek
fire, a precursor and chemical cousin to napalm. Greek fire is also recorded as being used in the period
674–678 when the city of Constantinople was saved by the use of the fire against them by an Arab
fleet (Davies, 1996). In 717–718 AD, Greek fire was again used to save the city of Constantinople from
attack by another Arab fleet, again with deadly effect (Dahmus, 1995). After this time, the Byzantine
navy of 300 hundred triremes frequently used Greek fire against all comers (Davies, 1996).
This probably represents the first documented use of the volatile derivatives of petroleum that led
to a continued interest in petroleum.
Greek fire was a viscous liquid that ignited on contact with water and was sprayed from a pumplike device onto the enemy. One can imagine the early users of the fire attempting to ignite the liquid
before hurling it toward the enemy.
However, the hazards that can be imagined from such tactics could become very real, and perhaps often fatal, to the users of the Greek fire if any spillage occurred before ejecting the fire toward
the enemy. The later technology for the use of Greek fire probably incorporated heat-generating
chemical such as quicklime (CaO) (Cobb and Goldwhite, 1995), which was suspended in the liquid
and which, when coming into contact with water (to produce [Ca(OH) 2 ], released heat that was sufficient to cause the liquid to ignite. One assumes that the users of the fire were extremely cautious
during periods of rain or, if at sea, during periods of turbulent weather.
As an aside, the use of powdered lime in warfare is also documented. The English used it
against the French on August 24, 1217, with disastrous effects for the French. As was usual for
that time, there was a difference of opinion between the English and the French that resulted in
their respective ships meeting at the east end of the English Channel. Before any other form of
engagement could occur, the lime was thrown from the English ships and carried by the wind
to the French ships where it made contact with the eyes of the French sailors. The burning
The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum
The product mûmûia was used in prescriptions, as early as the twelfth century, by the Arabian
physician Al Magor, for the treatment of contusions and wounds. Its production soon became a
special industry in the Alexandria. The scientist Al-Kazwînî alluded to the healing properties of
mûmûia, and Ibn Al-Baitâr gives an account of its source and composition. Engelbert Kämpfer
(1651–1716) in his treatise Amoenitates Exoticae gives a detailed account of the gathering of
mûmûia, the different grades and types, and its curative properties in medicine. As the supply of
mummies was of course limited, other expedients came into vogue. The corpses of slaves or criminals were filled with asphalt, swathed, and artificially aged in the sun. This practice continued until
the French physician, Guy de la Fontaine, exposed the deception in 1564 AD.
Many other references to bitumen occur throughout the Greek and Roman empires, and from
then to the Middle Ages early scientists (alchemists) frequently alluded to the use of bitumen. In
later times, both Christopher Columbus and Sir Walter Raleigh (depending upon the country of
origin of the biographer) have been credited with the discovery of the asphalt deposit on the island
of Trinidad and apparently used the material to caulk their ships.
The use of petroleum has also been documented in China: As early as 600 BC (Owen, 1975), petroleum was encountered when drilling for salt and mention of petroleum as an impurity in the salt is also
noted in documents of the third century AD. In a more national context, there is also the suggestion of
pre-Columbian oil mining in ancient Pennsylvania. The precise nature of the oil is unknown although
the method of recovery indicates light oil. The oil was recovered by oil mining in which pits that were
oblong approximately 4 by 6 ft in depth and that were operated by allowing them to fill with water
overnight then skimming the oil on the surface into containers (Anderton, 2012).
There was also an interest in the thermal product of petroleum (nafta; naphtha) when it was discovered that this material could be used as an illuminant and as a supplement to asphalt incendiaries
in warfare. For example, there are records of the use of mixtures of pitch and/or naphtha with sulfur
as a weapon of war during the Battle of Palatea, Greece, in the year 429 BC (Forbes, 1959). There are
references to the use of a liquid material, naft (presumably the volatile fraction of petroleum that we
now call naphtha and that is used as a solvent or as a precursor to gasoline), as an incendiary material
during various battles of the pre-Christian era (James and Thorpe, 1994). This is the so-called Greek
fire, a precursor and chemical cousin to napalm. Greek fire is also recorded as being used in the period
674–678 when the city of Constantinople was saved by the use of the fire against them by an Arab
fleet (Davies, 1996). In 717–718 AD, Greek fire was again used to save the city of Constantinople from
attack by another Arab fleet, again with deadly effect (Dahmus, 1995). After this time, the Byzantine
navy of 300 hundred triremes frequently used Greek fire against all comers (Davies, 1996).
This probably represents the first documented use of the volatile derivatives of petroleum that led
to a continued interest in petroleum.
Greek fire was a viscous liquid that ignited on contact with water and was sprayed from a pumplike device onto the enemy. One can imagine the early users of the fire attempting to ignite the liquid
before hurling it toward the enemy.
However, the hazards that can be imagined from such tactics could become very real, and perhaps often fatal, to the users of the Greek fire if any spillage occurred before ejecting the fire toward
the enemy. The later technology for the use of Greek fire probably incorporated heat-generating
chemical such as quicklime (CaO) (Cobb and Goldwhite, 1995), which was suspended in the liquid
and which, when coming into contact with water (to produce [Ca(OH) 2 ], released heat that was sufficient to cause the liquid to ignite. One assumes that the users of the fire were extremely cautious
during periods of rain or, if at sea, during periods of turbulent weather.
As an aside, the use of powdered lime in warfare is also documented. The English used it
against the French on August 24, 1217, with disastrous effects for the French. As was usual for
that time, there was a difference of opinion between the English and the French that resulted in
their respective ships meeting at the east end of the English Channel. Before any other form of
engagement could occur, the lime was thrown from the English ships and carried by the wind
to the French ships where it made contact with the eyes of the French sailors. The burning