isolating 322 strains of aerobic alkaliphiles [73], 3 of which formed new genera:
red-pigmented, psychrophilic Rhodonellum psychrophilum [74], Arsukibacterium
ikkense [75], and natronophilic Alkalilactibacillus ikkensis [76]. Interestingly, the
similar but opposite mechanism (spring water with high calcium content meets
carbonate containing lacustrine water) was found in alkaline and hypersaline Mono
Lake in California (a tufa formation) [77] and in Lake Van in the eastern Turkey [78]
resulting in the same hydrochemical phenomenon as underwater carbonate columns,
but their prokaryotic diversity descriptions are beyond the scope of this chapter.
2.5 Man-Made Alkaline Sites
Besides natural reasons, human activities can create alkaline environments. A striking
example of an extreme environment hosting microbial community is found in the Lake
Calumet area (Illinois, USA) [79]. Over decades of industrial waste dumping, largescale infilling of the wetlands with steel slag has created an aquifer with pH values as
high as 12.8. Compared to other alkaline environments, the overall microbial diversity
is poor. However, representatives of Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, and
Firmicutes were found. Another example of artificial alkaline environment is the huge
(200 ha) repository of saline soda lime in Janikowo, Poland [80]. The repository was
established in 1957 as a waste storage site from a local chemical plant producing soda
by the Solway method. Molecular probing has revealed a diverse microbial community
in this highly saline-, alkaline- (pH 10.8), and nutrient-poor environment. The dominated bacterial phyla were Proteobacteria (representing 52.8% of the total bacterial
community) and Firmicutes (16.6%). It is interesting that a significant portion of the
sequences (27%) constituted chloroplasts of algae instead of cyanobacteria, as one
might expect, and most of the organic matter present in this artificial environment
originates from allochthonous airborne material and atmospheric deposition on the lime
surface. Other industrial facilities with high pH and potentially regarded as habitats for
alkaliphiles may include aluminum production (Bacillus vedderi from a bauxiteprocessing red mud tailing pond in Canada [81]) and mining (strictly anaerobic
Alkaliphilus transvaalensis from a containment dam at 3.2 km below land surface in
an ultra-deep gold mine in South Africa [82]). One more artificial alkaline habitat is an
alkaline silica sol which is an important fine chemical product and has been widely used
in the chemical, textile, and material industries. The strains of facultative alkaliphiles
with protease and amylase activities belonging to six different genera have been
isolated from a putrid alkaline silica sol [83]. Although such a habitat is fully artificial
and in no way connected with the biosphere, isolation of alkaliphilic microorganisms
from there can be interesting, if the task is to find microorganisms of possible producers
of valuable enzymes. One more alkaline artificial habitat for alkaliphiles is a process of
indigo fermentation. The dye has been produced from the leaves of plants specific for
certain regions of the Earth, e.g., Polygonum tinctorium Lour. in China, Korea, and
Japan; Strobilanthes cusia in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan; Indigofera (Indigofera
tinctoria L. and Indigofera suffruticosa Mill. in India; and woad (Isatis tinctoria L.)
Isolation and Cultivation of Alkaliphiles
63
red-pigmented, psychrophilic Rhodonellum psychrophilum [74], Arsukibacterium
ikkense [75], and natronophilic Alkalilactibacillus ikkensis [76]. Interestingly, the
similar but opposite mechanism (spring water with high calcium content meets
carbonate containing lacustrine water) was found in alkaline and hypersaline Mono
Lake in California (a tufa formation) [77] and in Lake Van in the eastern Turkey [78]
resulting in the same hydrochemical phenomenon as underwater carbonate columns,
but their prokaryotic diversity descriptions are beyond the scope of this chapter.
2.5 Man-Made Alkaline Sites
Besides natural reasons, human activities can create alkaline environments. A striking
example of an extreme environment hosting microbial community is found in the Lake
Calumet area (Illinois, USA) [79]. Over decades of industrial waste dumping, largescale infilling of the wetlands with steel slag has created an aquifer with pH values as
high as 12.8. Compared to other alkaline environments, the overall microbial diversity
is poor. However, representatives of Alphaproteobacteria, Betaproteobacteria, and
Firmicutes were found. Another example of artificial alkaline environment is the huge
(200 ha) repository of saline soda lime in Janikowo, Poland [80]. The repository was
established in 1957 as a waste storage site from a local chemical plant producing soda
by the Solway method. Molecular probing has revealed a diverse microbial community
in this highly saline-, alkaline- (pH 10.8), and nutrient-poor environment. The dominated bacterial phyla were Proteobacteria (representing 52.8% of the total bacterial
community) and Firmicutes (16.6%). It is interesting that a significant portion of the
sequences (27%) constituted chloroplasts of algae instead of cyanobacteria, as one
might expect, and most of the organic matter present in this artificial environment
originates from allochthonous airborne material and atmospheric deposition on the lime
surface. Other industrial facilities with high pH and potentially regarded as habitats for
alkaliphiles may include aluminum production (Bacillus vedderi from a bauxiteprocessing red mud tailing pond in Canada [81]) and mining (strictly anaerobic
Alkaliphilus transvaalensis from a containment dam at 3.2 km below land surface in
an ultra-deep gold mine in South Africa [82]). One more artificial alkaline habitat is an
alkaline silica sol which is an important fine chemical product and has been widely used
in the chemical, textile, and material industries. The strains of facultative alkaliphiles
with protease and amylase activities belonging to six different genera have been
isolated from a putrid alkaline silica sol [83]. Although such a habitat is fully artificial
and in no way connected with the biosphere, isolation of alkaliphilic microorganisms
from there can be interesting, if the task is to find microorganisms of possible producers
of valuable enzymes. One more alkaline artificial habitat for alkaliphiles is a process of
indigo fermentation. The dye has been produced from the leaves of plants specific for
certain regions of the Earth, e.g., Polygonum tinctorium Lour. in China, Korea, and
Japan; Strobilanthes cusia in the Ryukyu Islands, Japan; Indigofera (Indigofera
tinctoria L. and Indigofera suffruticosa Mill. in India; and woad (Isatis tinctoria L.)
Isolation and Cultivation of Alkaliphiles
63