10
Engineering Systems Integration
a heuristic process*; a factual basis or underlying set of data or circumstances;
or a commonly accepted truth that has validity in certain circumstances.
Therefore, a principle is a description of that which has to be, or that which is,
or guidance that is arguably sound, or inevitably consequential of something
else. Principles are verifiably correct—as proven by both experience and
experiment. Principles can be combined, worked into a coherent body of
knowledge, and accepted as a basis for reasoning, logic, and action.
Ultimately, the test of a principle is through its applicability for a given
circumstance and context. The validity of a theory and its framework for
evaluating theoretical efficacies determines the utility of the principle for a
particular fitness of use. The fitness of a principle to a circumstance is a measure of its completeness.
Principles of integration extract insular thinking from the quagmire of
confusion, help guide decisions based on the sound and the good of a
particular situation, and present a logic that creates an air of confidence. In
as much as the principles help others justify their actions, the mere fact of
discussing and employing principles facilitates decision fitness † and decision
making throughout an organization (Howard and Matheson 1984), reinforces the teamness that inspires success, and provides a top-level perspective that retains purpose, objectivity, and planning prowess.
Principles of Integration
From a variety of case studies and reports on integration failures (Allen and
Cohen 1967, 1977; Cooper 1979; Hoopes and Postrel 1999; Zaitun et al. 2000;
Richey 2004; Burkatzky 2007; Leblond 2007), a few guiding principles can be
derived. For our purposes, principles are defined as the root causes of events.
We hold such root causes to be valid indicators of related, subsequent events.
Knowledge is valuable. This is a principle that relates knowledge and value,
where knowledge is the object and value is the modifier of that object. A
change in the value of knowledge indicates a change in knowledge; however,
a change in knowledge may neither be an indicator of a change in the value
of the knowledge nor the value of the change in the knowledge. Therefore, a
principle is a widely held “truth” based on inviolability.
* Heuristics can be thought of generally as the steps of solving a problem by trial and error
rather than by the distinctness of rules or factors thought through (Wu, citing and elaborating on the definition of heuristics from the Encarta dictionary, Wu and Adams 2006).
† Decision fitness (as described by Strategic Decisions Group) is illustrated as a chain of steps
that describe the appropriate frame for the decision, the creative and doable alternatives that
are possible, the meaningfulness and reliability of the information used, the clear values and
tradeoffs, the logically correct reasoning, and the commitment to action (Howard 1983).