Contents
XV
12.5.1 Mass-flow Versus Traction-current Processes . .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
425
12.5.1.1 Arid Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
428
12.5.1.2 Temperate-Humid Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
430
12.5.1. 3 Tropical-Humid Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
430
12.5.1.4 Boreal-Paraglacial Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
431
12.5.1.5 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
431
12.5.2
The Influence of Climate on Texture and Composition of Gravels . . . . .
432
12.6
Sandstones: The Significance of Sand Body Architecture
and Sedimentary StruCtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
433
!2.6.1
Fluvial Style in Sand-bed Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
433
12.6.2 Sand Body Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
434
12.6.3
Bedforms and Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
436
12.7
Overbank Fines: The Significance of Bedding
and Minor Sedimentary Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
437
12.8
The Significance of Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
439
12.9
Associated Clastic) Chemical, and Biochemical Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . .
439
12.9.1 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
439
12.9.2
12.9.3
12.9.4
12.9.5
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.12.1
12.12.2
12.12.3
12.13
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.3.1
13.3.2
13.3.3
13.3.4
13.3.5
13.3.6
13.4
13.4.1
13.4.2
13.4.3
13.4.4
13.5
14
14.1
14.2
14.2.1
Paleosols ...................................................... .
Evaporites .................................................... .
Eolian Interbeds ............................................... .
Palustrine Limestones ...... , . ... .. . , .. ..... ... . .. , . . ...... . ... . .
Contrasting Climatic Indicators .................................. .
The Interrelationship Between Tectonics and Climate ............... .
Orbital Forcing ................................................ .
Sedimentary Evidence of Orbital Forcing .......................... .
Fluvial Response to the Late Cenozoic Glaciations .................. .
Conclusions ................................................... .
Discussion ......... , .. ... . . . .... .. ... ...... . ... ... .... .. .... .. .
Sequence Stratigraphy .............................. , . ....... . . . .
Introduction .................................................. .
Accommodation Space ......................................... .
Main Components of the Fluvial Sequence Model .................. .
Sequence Boundary ............................................ .
Lowstand Systems Tract ........................................ .
Transgressive Systems Tract ..................................... .
Equivalent of Maximum Flooding Surface ......................... .
Highstand Systems Tract ........................................ .
Falling-stage Systems Tract ...................................... .
Time Scales of Nonmarine Sequences and Their Causes ............. .
First-order Cycles . , .......... .. ........ ..... .. .. . .. .. .. . ....... .
Second-order Cycles ............................................ .
Third-order Cycles ............................................. .
Fourth- and Fifth-order Cycles ................................... .
Discussion .................................................... .
Stratigraphic and Tectonic Controls on the Distribution
and Architecture of Fluvial Oil and Gas Reservoirs ................. .
Introduction .................................................. .
The Geometry of Fluvial Reservoirs ............................... .
Geometry and Origin of Depositional Systems ..................... .
440
441
441
442
442
443
444
444
447
450
450
453
453
456
459
459
466
471
474
474
475
475
476
476
477
477
477
479
479
480
480
XV
12.5.1 Mass-flow Versus Traction-current Processes . .. , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
425
12.5.1.1 Arid Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
428
12.5.1.2 Temperate-Humid Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
430
12.5.1. 3 Tropical-Humid Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
430
12.5.1.4 Boreal-Paraglacial Climates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
431
12.5.1.5 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
431
12.5.2
The Influence of Climate on Texture and Composition of Gravels . . . . .
432
12.6
Sandstones: The Significance of Sand Body Architecture
and Sedimentary StruCtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
433
!2.6.1
Fluvial Style in Sand-bed Rivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
433
12.6.2 Sand Body Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
434
12.6.3
Bedforms and Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
436
12.7
Overbank Fines: The Significance of Bedding
and Minor Sedimentary Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
437
12.8
The Significance of Color . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
439
12.9
Associated Clastic) Chemical, and Biochemical Sediments . . . . . . . . . . . .
439
12.9.1 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
439
12.9.2
12.9.3
12.9.4
12.9.5
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.12.1
12.12.2
12.12.3
12.13
13
13.1
13.2
13.3
13.3.1
13.3.2
13.3.3
13.3.4
13.3.5
13.3.6
13.4
13.4.1
13.4.2
13.4.3
13.4.4
13.5
14
14.1
14.2
14.2.1
Paleosols ...................................................... .
Evaporites .................................................... .
Eolian Interbeds ............................................... .
Palustrine Limestones ...... , . ... .. . , .. ..... ... . .. , . . ...... . ... . .
Contrasting Climatic Indicators .................................. .
The Interrelationship Between Tectonics and Climate ............... .
Orbital Forcing ................................................ .
Sedimentary Evidence of Orbital Forcing .......................... .
Fluvial Response to the Late Cenozoic Glaciations .................. .
Conclusions ................................................... .
Discussion ......... , .. ... . . . .... .. ... ...... . ... ... .... .. .... .. .
Sequence Stratigraphy .............................. , . ....... . . . .
Introduction .................................................. .
Accommodation Space ......................................... .
Main Components of the Fluvial Sequence Model .................. .
Sequence Boundary ............................................ .
Lowstand Systems Tract ........................................ .
Transgressive Systems Tract ..................................... .
Equivalent of Maximum Flooding Surface ......................... .
Highstand Systems Tract ........................................ .
Falling-stage Systems Tract ...................................... .
Time Scales of Nonmarine Sequences and Their Causes ............. .
First-order Cycles . , .......... .. ........ ..... .. .. . .. .. .. . ....... .
Second-order Cycles ............................................ .
Third-order Cycles ............................................. .
Fourth- and Fifth-order Cycles ................................... .
Discussion .................................................... .
Stratigraphic and Tectonic Controls on the Distribution
and Architecture of Fluvial Oil and Gas Reservoirs ................. .
Introduction .................................................. .
The Geometry of Fluvial Reservoirs ............................... .
Geometry and Origin of Depositional Systems ..................... .
440
441
441
442
442
443
444
444
447
450
450
453
453
456
459
459
466
471
474
474
475
475
476
476
477
477
477
479
479
480
480