23
2
described function can withstand thorough scientific investigation; nevertheless, the richness of compounds that have already been extracted from plant sources indicates that they
should not be easily dismissed. In light of the prospects that modern science is offering
with regard to the identification of novel useful substances, it is especially tragic that so
much knowledge is getting lost, and many known promising plants are already endangered (Zhu et al. 2011). This is mainly due to the destruction of the natural environment
in which many useful medicinal plants or plants with medicinal potential reside.
Also, modern breeding has diminished the content of secondary metabolites in many
crops and cultivated plants. To make them more palatable, these plants have been bred to be
less toxic, bitter, tart or hot. This way, hydrogen cyanides were removed from cassava, tannins from apples, cucurbitacins from pumpkin squash and cucumber or the bitter- tasting
compound from many types of lettuce. While it makes these plants sometimes safer or more
often nicer to eat, it goes hand in hand with a reduced content of secondary metabolites.
This might even make them less valuable in dietary terms. More importantly it often makes
them more susceptible to herbivores and pathogens compared to their “wild” relatives. This
requires more extensive use of herbicides and causes some loss of adaptability of the plant to
abiotic stress. In years with especially unpredicted or hefty weather conditions, this can
result in severe yield losses. Therefore, instead of breeding out the responsible secondary
metabolites, attempts are made to mask the bitter taste in order to make some foods more
acceptable to consumers (Coupland and Hayes 2014; Drewnowski and Gomez-Carneros
2000). Furthermore, scientists have begun to collect native variants or breed and preserve
seeds of wild ancestors of modern crop plants in order to protect the wealth of genetic
diversity and useful traits that is of now often even unknown and unexploited (Peres 2016).
2.2 History of Recreational Use
In the same way that plants have been exploited for medicine, they also have a long history
in recreational use and/or religious practice. The employment of plant-derived psychoactive drugs is ancient and even now persists in many indigenous cultures. In these cultures,
mind-altering drugs are normally used by people with a special role in the society or religion and mostly in specific rituals. However, partaking in mind-altering drugs has by now
become a more widespread recreational past-time in many countries. Marijuana (Cannabis
sativa), opium (Papaver somniferum), cocaine (Erythroxylum coca), paan (Areca catechu
L.) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) are among the most popular drugs in modern times,
but it can be safely assumed that such herbal concoctions have been used in their area of
native growth since prehistoric times. Description of the use and effects of drugs such as
cannabis or opium dates back as far as the description of herbal medicine, and many of
these drugs also have medicinal properties. Knowledge and use of these drugs then spread
along the trade routes, and they are now part of a worldwide albeit often illegal market.
A good example for this are the opioids, which are derived from the opium poppy
Papaver somniferum (Sertürner 1805). Archaeological seed findings in association with
human settlements in the wider Mediterranean region indicate that their use dates back to
at least 5000 BC (Merlin 2003), even though it can only be speculated whether this was
already for psychoactive properties. 2500-year-old findings in south-east Italy support the
use of opium poppy in religious cults. The first written record dates back to around 4000
BC, where a Sumerian text refers to the flower as hul gil, “plant of joy”, providing a very
strong indication for its recreational use.
2.2 · History of Recreational Use
2
described function can withstand thorough scientific investigation; nevertheless, the richness of compounds that have already been extracted from plant sources indicates that they
should not be easily dismissed. In light of the prospects that modern science is offering
with regard to the identification of novel useful substances, it is especially tragic that so
much knowledge is getting lost, and many known promising plants are already endangered (Zhu et al. 2011). This is mainly due to the destruction of the natural environment
in which many useful medicinal plants or plants with medicinal potential reside.
Also, modern breeding has diminished the content of secondary metabolites in many
crops and cultivated plants. To make them more palatable, these plants have been bred to be
less toxic, bitter, tart or hot. This way, hydrogen cyanides were removed from cassava, tannins from apples, cucurbitacins from pumpkin squash and cucumber or the bitter- tasting
compound from many types of lettuce. While it makes these plants sometimes safer or more
often nicer to eat, it goes hand in hand with a reduced content of secondary metabolites.
This might even make them less valuable in dietary terms. More importantly it often makes
them more susceptible to herbivores and pathogens compared to their “wild” relatives. This
requires more extensive use of herbicides and causes some loss of adaptability of the plant to
abiotic stress. In years with especially unpredicted or hefty weather conditions, this can
result in severe yield losses. Therefore, instead of breeding out the responsible secondary
metabolites, attempts are made to mask the bitter taste in order to make some foods more
acceptable to consumers (Coupland and Hayes 2014; Drewnowski and Gomez-Carneros
2000). Furthermore, scientists have begun to collect native variants or breed and preserve
seeds of wild ancestors of modern crop plants in order to protect the wealth of genetic
diversity and useful traits that is of now often even unknown and unexploited (Peres 2016).
2.2 History of Recreational Use
In the same way that plants have been exploited for medicine, they also have a long history
in recreational use and/or religious practice. The employment of plant-derived psychoactive drugs is ancient and even now persists in many indigenous cultures. In these cultures,
mind-altering drugs are normally used by people with a special role in the society or religion and mostly in specific rituals. However, partaking in mind-altering drugs has by now
become a more widespread recreational past-time in many countries. Marijuana (Cannabis
sativa), opium (Papaver somniferum), cocaine (Erythroxylum coca), paan (Areca catechu
L.) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) are among the most popular drugs in modern times,
but it can be safely assumed that such herbal concoctions have been used in their area of
native growth since prehistoric times. Description of the use and effects of drugs such as
cannabis or opium dates back as far as the description of herbal medicine, and many of
these drugs also have medicinal properties. Knowledge and use of these drugs then spread
along the trade routes, and they are now part of a worldwide albeit often illegal market.
A good example for this are the opioids, which are derived from the opium poppy
Papaver somniferum (Sertürner 1805). Archaeological seed findings in association with
human settlements in the wider Mediterranean region indicate that their use dates back to
at least 5000 BC (Merlin 2003), even though it can only be speculated whether this was
already for psychoactive properties. 2500-year-old findings in south-east Italy support the
use of opium poppy in religious cults. The first written record dates back to around 4000
BC, where a Sumerian text refers to the flower as hul gil, “plant of joy”, providing a very
strong indication for its recreational use.
2.2 · History of Recreational Use