2.4 Pulse 3
71
how programmes or other interventions are constructed to activate these theories of change.
(Funnel and Rogers 2011)
This theory type can include both positive (beneficial) and negative (detrimental)
impacts, and it can indicate other factors that contribute to the cause of impacts,
such as the context and other policies, projects and programmes. Programme theory,
as an epistemological perspective, highlights causal mechanisms, such as norms,
that lead to behavioural changes and that are instrumental in delivering the intended
results of programmes. Programme theory can assist practitioners as a tool for evaluating the impact of a programme (Funnell and Rogers 2011), and I will use it as an
epistemological device throughout.
Mathematically oriented theories use the language of mathematics, as opposed
to the other two sub-types, which utilise a written language (Mearsheimer and
Walt 2013). Examples of mathematically oriented theories include algorithms in
computers science and software programming, equations in physics and quantum
physics (Gutman et al. 2016), equations of motion in super space in M theory (Howe
et al. 1997) and M theory as a matrix model (Banks et al. 1997). According to
Ye (2009), M theory is characterised by a super-symmetry string theory, which
pays attention to mathematical forms. He goes on to describe it as ‘the mainstream
of contemporary theoretical physics, M theory is an overall theory embracing not
only quantum gravity but also matter and force’ (Ye 2009). In other words, it is a
perspective of theoretical physics (Nakayama 2010).
To highlight the operation of these theory types, I will briefly consider the case
of climate change. Liberal institutionalism is a grand, problem-solving theory that
explains inter-state behaviour and that proposes solutions to ameliorate various problems at numerous levels. It also puts forwards the construction of structures, such
as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), for supporting the global
response to climate change through a variety of activities and practices (UNFCCC
2020). A middle-range theory would explain certain scientific measures for dealing
with climate change and its associated problems, such as adaptation and mitigation, while a critical theory would, for instance, explain the issue in terms of wealth
inequality and how this perpetuates the situation and its associated solutions. This
theory then suggests how various actors could change to bring about more equality
between states and, by so doing, it could influence the debate between developed and
developing countries regarding the matter. Mathematically oriented theories play a
critical role in developing climate change models, when scientists develop algorithms
to run their models.
2.5 Conclusion
Paradigms and theories that are linked with an action help to guide our thinking
of the unexplained and to bring us closer to an explanation and understanding
71
how programmes or other interventions are constructed to activate these theories of change.
(Funnel and Rogers 2011)
This theory type can include both positive (beneficial) and negative (detrimental)
impacts, and it can indicate other factors that contribute to the cause of impacts,
such as the context and other policies, projects and programmes. Programme theory,
as an epistemological perspective, highlights causal mechanisms, such as norms,
that lead to behavioural changes and that are instrumental in delivering the intended
results of programmes. Programme theory can assist practitioners as a tool for evaluating the impact of a programme (Funnell and Rogers 2011), and I will use it as an
epistemological device throughout.
Mathematically oriented theories use the language of mathematics, as opposed
to the other two sub-types, which utilise a written language (Mearsheimer and
Walt 2013). Examples of mathematically oriented theories include algorithms in
computers science and software programming, equations in physics and quantum
physics (Gutman et al. 2016), equations of motion in super space in M theory (Howe
et al. 1997) and M theory as a matrix model (Banks et al. 1997). According to
Ye (2009), M theory is characterised by a super-symmetry string theory, which
pays attention to mathematical forms. He goes on to describe it as ‘the mainstream
of contemporary theoretical physics, M theory is an overall theory embracing not
only quantum gravity but also matter and force’ (Ye 2009). In other words, it is a
perspective of theoretical physics (Nakayama 2010).
To highlight the operation of these theory types, I will briefly consider the case
of climate change. Liberal institutionalism is a grand, problem-solving theory that
explains inter-state behaviour and that proposes solutions to ameliorate various problems at numerous levels. It also puts forwards the construction of structures, such
as the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and
the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), for supporting the global
response to climate change through a variety of activities and practices (UNFCCC
2020). A middle-range theory would explain certain scientific measures for dealing
with climate change and its associated problems, such as adaptation and mitigation, while a critical theory would, for instance, explain the issue in terms of wealth
inequality and how this perpetuates the situation and its associated solutions. This
theory then suggests how various actors could change to bring about more equality
between states and, by so doing, it could influence the debate between developed and
developing countries regarding the matter. Mathematically oriented theories play a
critical role in developing climate change models, when scientists develop algorithms
to run their models.
2.5 Conclusion
Paradigms and theories that are linked with an action help to guide our thinking
of the unexplained and to bring us closer to an explanation and understanding