singly or in combination were in the range of 50–150 and
150–300 mg/L, respectively. The simultaneous combination
treatment with 100 mg/L nanozinc and 150 mg/L nanosilicon was found to improve not only the resistance and fruit
quality but also the productivity of mango trees under salt
stressed conditions. The involvement of biologically synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles in management of
seed-borne plant pathogen is recently documented (Lakshmeesha et al. 2020). With increase in concentration, zinc
oxide nanoparticle having size 30–40 nm with hexagonal
structure led to growth suppression of fungal phytopathogen
Cladosporium cladosporioides and Fusarium oxysporum.
Treatment with nanoparticles caused alterations in level of
fungal ergosterol, peroxidation of lipid molecules and
modulations in membrane functionality, implying the utilization of nanoparticles as economical strategy in minimizing fungal pathogen-induced losses in crop productivity.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles serving as antifungal agent against
Colletotrichum species responsible for anthracnose disease
in coffee are reported by Mosquera-Sánchez et al. (2020),
suggesting implications in sustainable crop protection. At
15 mM concentration, the nanoparticle treatment was
observed to significantly inhibit the fungal growth within six
days. Apart from inhibition of phytopathogens, the
nanoparticulate forms of fertilizers referred as nanofertilizers
may be used in agriculture to enhance the productivity of
important crops and the efficiency of fertilizers (Ramírez-Rodríguez et al. 2020; Yusefi-Tanha et al. 2020). Since
the biological activity of ENPs is affected much by type,
concentration, size (Yusefi-Tanha et al. 2020), metals and
complexes, pathogen selected, and most importantly the
characteristics of environmental matrices like soil and water,
the selection of apposite nanoparticle is a pre-requisite for
experiencing optimum beneficial effect. Furthermore,
small-scale field investigations should also be conducted
prior to large application in agro-ecosystems to avoid the
environmental toxicity of metal and non-metal derived
nanoparticles.
3 Techniques for Quantification
of Nanoparticles
Extensive utilization of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers in
agriculture has introduced unexpectedly large quantities of
different nanoparticles in soil environment, posing undesirable effects (Carley et al. 2020). The concentrations of
nanoparticles beyond certain limits are reported to exert
toxicity to soil microbes and invertebrates. Surprising, to
date, no regulatory limits have been set for different
nanoparticles in water and soil environment. The precise
identification, characterization, and determination using
advanced instrumentation techniques, therefore, are
inevitable to mitigate the toxicity of nanoparticles to agricultural soils.
Quantification of engineered nanoparticles consisting of
gold, silver, and cerium based on inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is reported by
Gschwind et al. (2013) and results were comparable to other
quantifying methods. The microdrop generator integrated
with ICP-TOF-MS has been described for the determination
of silver and gold nanoparticle mixture (Borovinskaya et al.
2014). Recently, simultaneous identification and quantification of titanium nanoparticles employing single particle
ICP-MS equipped with TEM-EDS are presented by Wu
et al. (2020). The developed method was able to determine
the nanoparticle concentrations within the limits of 10
2
particles/ml.
Development of field-based techniques for rapid assessment of even minute concentrations of various nanoparticles
from different soil components would facilitate the
employment of appropriate strategies for evaluating the
ecological risks (Wu et al. 2020) and maintenance of continuously deteriorating soil health. Further, the improvement
in limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification
(LOQ) could be helpful in measuring the traces of
nanoparticles. In addition, the precise determination of
nanoparticles is affected considerably by extraction methods,
substances used for dispersion (Bland and Lowry 2020),
types of soil, and instrumental sensitivity.
4 Impact of Nanoparticle Application on Soil
Characteristics
Considerable rise in fabrication of varied metal and
non-metal nanoparticles followed by application for multiple
agricultural purposes has caused enhanced exposure and
entry into soil environment (Ben-Moshe et al. 2013; Sun
et al. 2020), consequently causing food chain contamination
(Rajput et al. 2020a; b). The interaction of ENPs with soil is
complex because of substantial variations in soil composition as well as prevailing environmental conditions. After
introduction into terrestrial environment, nanoparticles may
characteristically modulate the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soil (Samanta and Mandal 2017).
4.1 Soil pH
Soil pH is important parameter governing the growth and
development of plant as well as soil microbial community
structures and functions. The interaction of ENPs with soil
may modulate the pH and varies significantly for different
soil types (Conway and Keller 2016). The introduction of
nanoparticles comprising of titanium, copper, and cerium in
Effect of Engineered Nanoparticles on Soil Attributes …
121
150–300 mg/L, respectively. The simultaneous combination
treatment with 100 mg/L nanozinc and 150 mg/L nanosilicon was found to improve not only the resistance and fruit
quality but also the productivity of mango trees under salt
stressed conditions. The involvement of biologically synthesized zinc oxide nanoparticles in management of
seed-borne plant pathogen is recently documented (Lakshmeesha et al. 2020). With increase in concentration, zinc
oxide nanoparticle having size 30–40 nm with hexagonal
structure led to growth suppression of fungal phytopathogen
Cladosporium cladosporioides and Fusarium oxysporum.
Treatment with nanoparticles caused alterations in level of
fungal ergosterol, peroxidation of lipid molecules and
modulations in membrane functionality, implying the utilization of nanoparticles as economical strategy in minimizing fungal pathogen-induced losses in crop productivity.
Zinc oxide nanoparticles serving as antifungal agent against
Colletotrichum species responsible for anthracnose disease
in coffee are reported by Mosquera-Sánchez et al. (2020),
suggesting implications in sustainable crop protection. At
15 mM concentration, the nanoparticle treatment was
observed to significantly inhibit the fungal growth within six
days. Apart from inhibition of phytopathogens, the
nanoparticulate forms of fertilizers referred as nanofertilizers
may be used in agriculture to enhance the productivity of
important crops and the efficiency of fertilizers (Ramírez-Rodríguez et al. 2020; Yusefi-Tanha et al. 2020). Since
the biological activity of ENPs is affected much by type,
concentration, size (Yusefi-Tanha et al. 2020), metals and
complexes, pathogen selected, and most importantly the
characteristics of environmental matrices like soil and water,
the selection of apposite nanoparticle is a pre-requisite for
experiencing optimum beneficial effect. Furthermore,
small-scale field investigations should also be conducted
prior to large application in agro-ecosystems to avoid the
environmental toxicity of metal and non-metal derived
nanoparticles.
3 Techniques for Quantification
of Nanoparticles
Extensive utilization of nanopesticides and nanofertilizers in
agriculture has introduced unexpectedly large quantities of
different nanoparticles in soil environment, posing undesirable effects (Carley et al. 2020). The concentrations of
nanoparticles beyond certain limits are reported to exert
toxicity to soil microbes and invertebrates. Surprising, to
date, no regulatory limits have been set for different
nanoparticles in water and soil environment. The precise
identification, characterization, and determination using
advanced instrumentation techniques, therefore, are
inevitable to mitigate the toxicity of nanoparticles to agricultural soils.
Quantification of engineered nanoparticles consisting of
gold, silver, and cerium based on inductively coupled
plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) is reported by
Gschwind et al. (2013) and results were comparable to other
quantifying methods. The microdrop generator integrated
with ICP-TOF-MS has been described for the determination
of silver and gold nanoparticle mixture (Borovinskaya et al.
2014). Recently, simultaneous identification and quantification of titanium nanoparticles employing single particle
ICP-MS equipped with TEM-EDS are presented by Wu
et al. (2020). The developed method was able to determine
the nanoparticle concentrations within the limits of 10
2
particles/ml.
Development of field-based techniques for rapid assessment of even minute concentrations of various nanoparticles
from different soil components would facilitate the
employment of appropriate strategies for evaluating the
ecological risks (Wu et al. 2020) and maintenance of continuously deteriorating soil health. Further, the improvement
in limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification
(LOQ) could be helpful in measuring the traces of
nanoparticles. In addition, the precise determination of
nanoparticles is affected considerably by extraction methods,
substances used for dispersion (Bland and Lowry 2020),
types of soil, and instrumental sensitivity.
4 Impact of Nanoparticle Application on Soil
Characteristics
Considerable rise in fabrication of varied metal and
non-metal nanoparticles followed by application for multiple
agricultural purposes has caused enhanced exposure and
entry into soil environment (Ben-Moshe et al. 2013; Sun
et al. 2020), consequently causing food chain contamination
(Rajput et al. 2020a; b). The interaction of ENPs with soil is
complex because of substantial variations in soil composition as well as prevailing environmental conditions. After
introduction into terrestrial environment, nanoparticles may
characteristically modulate the physical, chemical, and biological characteristics of soil (Samanta and Mandal 2017).
4.1 Soil pH
Soil pH is important parameter governing the growth and
development of plant as well as soil microbial community
structures and functions. The interaction of ENPs with soil
may modulate the pH and varies significantly for different
soil types (Conway and Keller 2016). The introduction of
nanoparticles comprising of titanium, copper, and cerium in
Effect of Engineered Nanoparticles on Soil Attributes …
121