4.2.1 Colony Collapse Disorder: Honey Bee
At the forefront of the overall pollinator decline concern was the phenomenon of
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD); though CCD is visible only due to the beekeeping
industry and specific to the managed Western honey bee, the catastrophically sudden
nature of hive mortality was enough to turn attention to pollinator health in 2006.
According to the available research, a combination of variables contributes to
CCD, investigated primarily in the United States and Europe. CCD is a complex
phenomenon that affects managed honey bee colonies (Apis mellifera); the primary
symptom is a rapid loss of adult worker bees, and since these bees are responsible for
the majority of hive tasks, the death of the entire colony typically follows.
CCD has a defined set of symptoms and is just one form of honey bee colony loss.
Between the years of 2007 through 2014, 30–60% of winter colony losses in the
United States conformed to CCD signs and symptoms, which include [50]:
1. Rapid loss of adult worker bees. Sudden decline varies between days and a few
weeks.
2. Remaining worker bees are young.
3. The queen is still present.
4. There are no dead bees inside or around the hive.
5. At the final stage, there are no adult bees left in the hive.
6. Presence of capped brood in an abandoned colony.
7. Ample food stores in the hive (honey and pollen).
8. Delayed invasion of pests such as small hive beetles and wax moths.
9. Kleptoparasitism from neighboring honey bee colonies (also known as
“robbing”).
10. Colonies suffering from CCD are more likely to neighbor each other.
A complex combination of variables correlates with CCD:
1. Pesticides: insecticides such as neonicotinoids used in crops, miticides used in
beekeeping, some herbicides and fungicides.
2. Parasites and disease:
• Varroa mite infestation that causes direct damage by sucking bee hemolymph
and indirect damage by promoting infection by virus, fungus, or bacteria
• Viral infections include Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), Israeli acute
paralysis virus (IAPV) and Kashmir bee virus (KBV), Deformed wing virus
(DWV), Apis Iridescent virus (AIV)
• Bacterial infection
3. Poor nutrition: pollen and nectar deficiencies from a variety of causes such as lack
of flowers, habitat loss, etc.
Pesticides are broadly defined as any substance used to destroy or prevent various
pests; in the context of agriculture, such chemicals include herbicides to kill weeds,
fungicides to kill fungi, and insecticides to kill insects. These substances are most
1 Understanding, Conservation, and Protection of Precious Natural Resources: Bees
19
At the forefront of the overall pollinator decline concern was the phenomenon of
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD); though CCD is visible only due to the beekeeping
industry and specific to the managed Western honey bee, the catastrophically sudden
nature of hive mortality was enough to turn attention to pollinator health in 2006.
According to the available research, a combination of variables contributes to
CCD, investigated primarily in the United States and Europe. CCD is a complex
phenomenon that affects managed honey bee colonies (Apis mellifera); the primary
symptom is a rapid loss of adult worker bees, and since these bees are responsible for
the majority of hive tasks, the death of the entire colony typically follows.
CCD has a defined set of symptoms and is just one form of honey bee colony loss.
Between the years of 2007 through 2014, 30–60% of winter colony losses in the
United States conformed to CCD signs and symptoms, which include [50]:
1. Rapid loss of adult worker bees. Sudden decline varies between days and a few
weeks.
2. Remaining worker bees are young.
3. The queen is still present.
4. There are no dead bees inside or around the hive.
5. At the final stage, there are no adult bees left in the hive.
6. Presence of capped brood in an abandoned colony.
7. Ample food stores in the hive (honey and pollen).
8. Delayed invasion of pests such as small hive beetles and wax moths.
9. Kleptoparasitism from neighboring honey bee colonies (also known as
“robbing”).
10. Colonies suffering from CCD are more likely to neighbor each other.
A complex combination of variables correlates with CCD:
1. Pesticides: insecticides such as neonicotinoids used in crops, miticides used in
beekeeping, some herbicides and fungicides.
2. Parasites and disease:
• Varroa mite infestation that causes direct damage by sucking bee hemolymph
and indirect damage by promoting infection by virus, fungus, or bacteria
• Viral infections include Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV), Israeli acute
paralysis virus (IAPV) and Kashmir bee virus (KBV), Deformed wing virus
(DWV), Apis Iridescent virus (AIV)
• Bacterial infection
3. Poor nutrition: pollen and nectar deficiencies from a variety of causes such as lack
of flowers, habitat loss, etc.
Pesticides are broadly defined as any substance used to destroy or prevent various
pests; in the context of agriculture, such chemicals include herbicides to kill weeds,
fungicides to kill fungi, and insecticides to kill insects. These substances are most
1 Understanding, Conservation, and Protection of Precious Natural Resources: Bees
19