0 indicates ‘no pain’ and 100 indicates ‘worst imaginable pain’ on a 100 mm scale
(Jensen et al. 1986). In a recent study, Veselinovic et al. (2017) evaluated the effect
of supplementation of fish oil alone and in combination with evening primrose oil in
RA patients and observed a significant (P < 0.001) decrease in Disease Activity
Score 28 (DAS28) from 4.76–4.99 to 3.79–3.91 and the number of tender joints and
visual analogue scale (VAS) score from 55.7–59.0 to 46.7–50.5 after 12 weeks in
both groups.
14.10.5 In Neurodevelopment and Obesity
Long-chain PUFAs such as DHA and AA are critically important for the optimal
development of brain, visual and cognitive functions (Belkind-Gerson et al. 2008;
Ryan et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2016). As the gestation progresses particularly during
the last trimester, DHA and AA accrete in the brain and continue during the first
postnatal year in human and animal infants (Makrides et al. 2010). Several clinical
manifestations such as dyspraxia, dyslexia, autism or other cognitive disorders have
been associated with the deficiency of LC-PUFAs (Wang et al. 2016; BelkindGerson et al. 2008). However, numerous researchers have reported that such clinical
manifestations could be relieved to some extent with the supplementation of longchain omega-3 fatty acids during early life (Ward 2000; Makrides et al. 2009; Ryan
et al. 2010). Fewtrell et al. (2004) conducted a randomised, double-blind trial on
preterm (<35 weeks) infants (n ¼ 238) to test the efficacy and safety of LC-PUFAs
(EPA, DHA and GLA)-supplemented formula for 9 months after birth. In the study,
no significant different was observed in neurodevelopment between the
supplemented group and control. However, LC-PUFAs-supplemented group
showed significantly higher Bayley Mental Developmental Index (MDI), Motor
(Psychomotor) Developmental Index (PDI), greater weight and length gain than
that of control group. MDI and PDI are the Bayley Scales of Infant Development
(BSID), which are widely used to monitor neurodevelopmental outcomes in young
children up to 3 years of age (Bos 2013).
A few researchers have linked elevated levels of inflammatory biomarkers such as
C-reactive protein (CRP) with increased prevalence of obesity (Visser et al. 1999;
Schirmer and Phinney 2007; Horvei et al. 2016; Ellulu et al. 2017). Schirmer and
Phinney (2007) evaluated the efficacy of GLA (5 g/day borage oil equivalent to
890 mg GLA/day) in obese people (n ¼ 50) and observed no significant change in
weight gain and fat regain in borage oil group after 1 year when compared with
control (olive oil group) and concluded that GLA reduced weight gain followed by
major weight loss in obese people. The clear mechanism behind the suppression of
weight gain by GLA is not clear, but it could possibly be due to enhanced
arachidonate synthesis, which in turn might improve peripheral glucose disposal
via increased insulin sensitivity, downregulation of lipogenesis, increased lipid
oxidation, and enhanced leptin secretion (Schirmer and Phinney 2007). In other
studies, conducted on Zucker obese rats, supplementation of GLA supressed food
14 Borage (Borago officinalis) Seed
365
(Jensen et al. 1986). In a recent study, Veselinovic et al. (2017) evaluated the effect
of supplementation of fish oil alone and in combination with evening primrose oil in
RA patients and observed a significant (P < 0.001) decrease in Disease Activity
Score 28 (DAS28) from 4.76–4.99 to 3.79–3.91 and the number of tender joints and
visual analogue scale (VAS) score from 55.7–59.0 to 46.7–50.5 after 12 weeks in
both groups.
14.10.5 In Neurodevelopment and Obesity
Long-chain PUFAs such as DHA and AA are critically important for the optimal
development of brain, visual and cognitive functions (Belkind-Gerson et al. 2008;
Ryan et al. 2010; Wang et al. 2016). As the gestation progresses particularly during
the last trimester, DHA and AA accrete in the brain and continue during the first
postnatal year in human and animal infants (Makrides et al. 2010). Several clinical
manifestations such as dyspraxia, dyslexia, autism or other cognitive disorders have
been associated with the deficiency of LC-PUFAs (Wang et al. 2016; BelkindGerson et al. 2008). However, numerous researchers have reported that such clinical
manifestations could be relieved to some extent with the supplementation of longchain omega-3 fatty acids during early life (Ward 2000; Makrides et al. 2009; Ryan
et al. 2010). Fewtrell et al. (2004) conducted a randomised, double-blind trial on
preterm (<35 weeks) infants (n ¼ 238) to test the efficacy and safety of LC-PUFAs
(EPA, DHA and GLA)-supplemented formula for 9 months after birth. In the study,
no significant different was observed in neurodevelopment between the
supplemented group and control. However, LC-PUFAs-supplemented group
showed significantly higher Bayley Mental Developmental Index (MDI), Motor
(Psychomotor) Developmental Index (PDI), greater weight and length gain than
that of control group. MDI and PDI are the Bayley Scales of Infant Development
(BSID), which are widely used to monitor neurodevelopmental outcomes in young
children up to 3 years of age (Bos 2013).
A few researchers have linked elevated levels of inflammatory biomarkers such as
C-reactive protein (CRP) with increased prevalence of obesity (Visser et al. 1999;
Schirmer and Phinney 2007; Horvei et al. 2016; Ellulu et al. 2017). Schirmer and
Phinney (2007) evaluated the efficacy of GLA (5 g/day borage oil equivalent to
890 mg GLA/day) in obese people (n ¼ 50) and observed no significant change in
weight gain and fat regain in borage oil group after 1 year when compared with
control (olive oil group) and concluded that GLA reduced weight gain followed by
major weight loss in obese people. The clear mechanism behind the suppression of
weight gain by GLA is not clear, but it could possibly be due to enhanced
arachidonate synthesis, which in turn might improve peripheral glucose disposal
via increased insulin sensitivity, downregulation of lipogenesis, increased lipid
oxidation, and enhanced leptin secretion (Schirmer and Phinney 2007). In other
studies, conducted on Zucker obese rats, supplementation of GLA supressed food
14 Borage (Borago officinalis) Seed
365