et al. 2013; Foster et al. 2010; Brosche and Platt 2000; Simon et al. 2014; Tanaka
et al. 2015). One-series prostaglandins (PGE1) and 15-hydroxy-dihomo-γ-linolenic
acid derived from GLA are known to inhibit pro-inflammatory four-series thromboxane (TX4) and exert the anti-proliferative effect on cells, which is further
associated with increased ceramide synthesis and improved barrier function of
epidermis (Chung et al. 2002). Kawamura et al. (2011) studied the effect of dietary
supplementation of GLA (extracted from fungus Mucor circinelloides, 28.7% GLA)
on patients (n ¼ 130) with dry skin and mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis. In the
study, results showed that transepidermal water loss (TEWL) (which remains high in
dry skin condition) reduced from À1.47 Æ 5.25 to À3.24 Æ 5.44 and À 0.90 Æ 3.23
to À2.03 Æ 3.77 g/m
2 /h in cheeks and forearm skin, respectively, and, thus,
improved skin barrier function and reduced epidermal hyperproliferation. In
GLA-supplemented group, authors associated improved skin barrier functions with
anti-inflammatory compounds generated through GLA metabolism. Similarly,
Brosche and Platt (2000) studied the effect of GLA supplementation (360–720 mg GLA/day for 2 months) in elderly people (n ¼ 13) and reported the changes
in fatty acid metabolism and a significant improvement in TEWL.
In a randomised, double-blind, controlled trial, Jung et al. (2014) studied the
effect of omega-3 fatty acids (EPA + DHA, 2000 mg/day) and GLA (400 mg) (in the
form of borage oil) supplementation in 45 patients having mild-to-moderate acne
(acne vulgaris). The authors observed a significant decrease in inflammatory and
noninflammatory acne lesions and interleukin-8 (IL-8) after 10 weeks. Interleukin8 is a chemotactic and inflammatory cytokine associated with epidermal hyperplasia,
follicular hyperkeratosis and acne inflammation (Abd El All et al. 2007). Contrary to
the previous positive results, Henz et al. (1999) conducted a double-blind study over
24 weeks to test the effectiveness of borage oil in patients (n ¼ 160) with moderate
atopic eczema and found highly disappointing results. In the study, patients consumed three borage oil capsules (500 mg oil/capsule) twice daily. Though there was
a significant increase in GLA metabolites and decrease in IgE levels in serum of the
borage oil group, overall response could not reach to the statistical significance
(Henz et al. 1999). Similarly, in an intervention review written by Bamford et al.
(2013), 27 studies (1596 participants) were assessed for the effect of oral supplementation of evening primrose and borage oil and found no significant (P < 0.05)
improvement in the sign and symptoms of eczema. However, it is also important to
note that several clinical studies involving healthy and health-compromised (atopic
dermatitis, asthma and atopic eczema) infants (<12 months), children (8–26 months)
and adults consuming 0.03–6.00 g GLA/day for 6–18 months did not show any
adverse effects in subjects, which have been compiled and reviewed by the
FDA (2016).
14 Borage (Borago officinalis) Seed
363
et al. 2015). One-series prostaglandins (PGE1) and 15-hydroxy-dihomo-γ-linolenic
acid derived from GLA are known to inhibit pro-inflammatory four-series thromboxane (TX4) and exert the anti-proliferative effect on cells, which is further
associated with increased ceramide synthesis and improved barrier function of
epidermis (Chung et al. 2002). Kawamura et al. (2011) studied the effect of dietary
supplementation of GLA (extracted from fungus Mucor circinelloides, 28.7% GLA)
on patients (n ¼ 130) with dry skin and mild-to-moderate atopic dermatitis. In the
study, results showed that transepidermal water loss (TEWL) (which remains high in
dry skin condition) reduced from À1.47 Æ 5.25 to À3.24 Æ 5.44 and À 0.90 Æ 3.23
to À2.03 Æ 3.77 g/m
2 /h in cheeks and forearm skin, respectively, and, thus,
improved skin barrier function and reduced epidermal hyperproliferation. In
GLA-supplemented group, authors associated improved skin barrier functions with
anti-inflammatory compounds generated through GLA metabolism. Similarly,
Brosche and Platt (2000) studied the effect of GLA supplementation (360–720 mg GLA/day for 2 months) in elderly people (n ¼ 13) and reported the changes
in fatty acid metabolism and a significant improvement in TEWL.
In a randomised, double-blind, controlled trial, Jung et al. (2014) studied the
effect of omega-3 fatty acids (EPA + DHA, 2000 mg/day) and GLA (400 mg) (in the
form of borage oil) supplementation in 45 patients having mild-to-moderate acne
(acne vulgaris). The authors observed a significant decrease in inflammatory and
noninflammatory acne lesions and interleukin-8 (IL-8) after 10 weeks. Interleukin8 is a chemotactic and inflammatory cytokine associated with epidermal hyperplasia,
follicular hyperkeratosis and acne inflammation (Abd El All et al. 2007). Contrary to
the previous positive results, Henz et al. (1999) conducted a double-blind study over
24 weeks to test the effectiveness of borage oil in patients (n ¼ 160) with moderate
atopic eczema and found highly disappointing results. In the study, patients consumed three borage oil capsules (500 mg oil/capsule) twice daily. Though there was
a significant increase in GLA metabolites and decrease in IgE levels in serum of the
borage oil group, overall response could not reach to the statistical significance
(Henz et al. 1999). Similarly, in an intervention review written by Bamford et al.
(2013), 27 studies (1596 participants) were assessed for the effect of oral supplementation of evening primrose and borage oil and found no significant (P < 0.05)
improvement in the sign and symptoms of eczema. However, it is also important to
note that several clinical studies involving healthy and health-compromised (atopic
dermatitis, asthma and atopic eczema) infants (<12 months), children (8–26 months)
and adults consuming 0.03–6.00 g GLA/day for 6–18 months did not show any
adverse effects in subjects, which have been compiled and reviewed by the
FDA (2016).
14 Borage (Borago officinalis) Seed
363