10.6.7 Role in Inflammatory Disease and Immune Function
Flaxseed, due to the presence of eicosanoids and cytokines, favorably affects the
immunity. Javed (1999) reported that ALA and lignans in flaxseed have a beneficial
role in the management of autoimmune diseases by modulating the immune
responses. The conversion of fatty acids of flaxseed into prostaglandins may be
helpful in regulation of inflammation (Ogborn et al. 2002; Fitzpatrick 2007). In a
study on tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in health
subjects fed with flaxseed oil-based diet, Caughey et al. (1996) observed that
incorporation of flaxseed oil (14 g) in domestic food preparation inhibited the
production of mononuclear cell (TNF-α) and (IL-1β) nearly 30% at the end of
4 weeks. Roy et al. (2007) studied the anti-inflammatory effect of ALA in middleaged men and observed that ALA supplementation significantly reduced inflammation markers as measured in terms of C-reactive protein (CRP).
10.6.8 Role in Reproduction and Fetal Development
Dietary phytoestrogen has a vital role in masculine reproductive health. Reports are
available linking the role of lignans in combating against polycystic ovary syndrome
in vulnerable women by reducing the levels of circulating testosterone (NowakDebra et al. 2007). The fetus and newborn are very much sensitive to environmental
chemicals, and a small exposure can have important consequences (Jefferson et al.
2012). Detoxification process in the fetus and newborn is inefficient as the metabolites processing and elimination mechanisms are not fully developed (Chen et al.
2006). Further, several developmental processes in neonates are dependent on
steroid hormones, and secreted proteins have the potential to be altered by
phytoestrogens, which can interact with estrogen receptors such as ERα and Erβ
(Jefferson et al. 2012). Fetal exposure to phytoestrogen can suppress testosterone
synthesis, leading to cryptorchidism and adult testis dysfunction and also disrupts
female reproductive tract development by altering expression of genes encoded
signaling proteins (Clark and Cochrum 2007; Wohlfahrt-Veje et al. 2009; Ma
2009). These effects were found to have permanent consequences in both rodents
and humans, which persists during postnatal life (Baird and Newbold 2005). Until
the onset of puberty, many of the postnatal differentiation events are dependent on
steroid hormone signaling (Gray et al. 2001). In several animal models, it was found
that the brain development and sexual behavior are affected by exposure to phytoestrogen (Henry and Witt 2006; Sullivan et al. 2011). A recent study by CardosoCarraro et al. (2012) revealed that exposure of neonatal rats to estrogen results in the
reduction of the spermatic concentration and plasmatic testosterone. In an another
study on female Wistar rats, Assinder et al. (2007) observed that feeding of phytoestrogen prior to conception negatively affected the spermatogenesis of the
hypothalamus-pituitary-testicular axis among weaned male pups.
10 Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum)
267
Flaxseed, due to the presence of eicosanoids and cytokines, favorably affects the
immunity. Javed (1999) reported that ALA and lignans in flaxseed have a beneficial
role in the management of autoimmune diseases by modulating the immune
responses. The conversion of fatty acids of flaxseed into prostaglandins may be
helpful in regulation of inflammation (Ogborn et al. 2002; Fitzpatrick 2007). In a
study on tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) in health
subjects fed with flaxseed oil-based diet, Caughey et al. (1996) observed that
incorporation of flaxseed oil (14 g) in domestic food preparation inhibited the
production of mononuclear cell (TNF-α) and (IL-1β) nearly 30% at the end of
4 weeks. Roy et al. (2007) studied the anti-inflammatory effect of ALA in middleaged men and observed that ALA supplementation significantly reduced inflammation markers as measured in terms of C-reactive protein (CRP).
10.6.8 Role in Reproduction and Fetal Development
Dietary phytoestrogen has a vital role in masculine reproductive health. Reports are
available linking the role of lignans in combating against polycystic ovary syndrome
in vulnerable women by reducing the levels of circulating testosterone (NowakDebra et al. 2007). The fetus and newborn are very much sensitive to environmental
chemicals, and a small exposure can have important consequences (Jefferson et al.
2012). Detoxification process in the fetus and newborn is inefficient as the metabolites processing and elimination mechanisms are not fully developed (Chen et al.
2006). Further, several developmental processes in neonates are dependent on
steroid hormones, and secreted proteins have the potential to be altered by
phytoestrogens, which can interact with estrogen receptors such as ERα and Erβ
(Jefferson et al. 2012). Fetal exposure to phytoestrogen can suppress testosterone
synthesis, leading to cryptorchidism and adult testis dysfunction and also disrupts
female reproductive tract development by altering expression of genes encoded
signaling proteins (Clark and Cochrum 2007; Wohlfahrt-Veje et al. 2009; Ma
2009). These effects were found to have permanent consequences in both rodents
and humans, which persists during postnatal life (Baird and Newbold 2005). Until
the onset of puberty, many of the postnatal differentiation events are dependent on
steroid hormone signaling (Gray et al. 2001). In several animal models, it was found
that the brain development and sexual behavior are affected by exposure to phytoestrogen (Henry and Witt 2006; Sullivan et al. 2011). A recent study by CardosoCarraro et al. (2012) revealed that exposure of neonatal rats to estrogen results in the
reduction of the spermatic concentration and plasmatic testosterone. In an another
study on female Wistar rats, Assinder et al. (2007) observed that feeding of phytoestrogen prior to conception negatively affected the spermatogenesis of the
hypothalamus-pituitary-testicular axis among weaned male pups.
10 Flaxseed (Linum usitatissimum)
267