2.5 Inhomogeneity of the Work Function
33
work functions. The manner of averaging depends on the measurement method used,
which will be discussed in Chap. 4. The inhomogeneity of the work function affects
phenomena involving electron emission into both vacuum and solids, and hence the
performance of electron devices. The manner by which the inhomogeneity affects
the performance depends on the physical principles utilized for each device. This
resembles the effect of inhomogeneity on the measurement of the work function.
References
1. Holzl J, Schulte FK (1979) Work function of metals in solid state physics. In: Springer tracts
in modern physics, vol 85. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York
2. Rademann K, Kaiser B, Even U, Hensel F (1987) Size dependence of the gradual transition to
metallic properties in isolated mercury clusters. Phys Rev Lett 59:2319–2321
3. Sze SM, Ng KK (2007) Physics of semiconductor devices, 3rd edn. Wiley, New Jersey
4. Takeuchi D, Kato H, Ri GS, Yamada T, Vinod PR, Hwang D, Nebel CE, Okushi H, Yamasaki
S (2005) Direct observation of negative electron affinity in hydrogen-terminated diamond
surfaces. Appl Phys Lett 86:152103-1-152103–3
5. Lang ND, Kohn W (1973) Theory of metal surfaces: induced surface charge and image potential.
Phys Rev B 7:3541–3550
6. IUPAC (1997) Compendium of chemical terminology, 2nd edn. (The “Gold Book”). Online
corrected version: (2006–) Electronegativity
7. Gordy W, Thomas WJO (1956) Electronegativities of the elements. J Chem Phys 24:439–444
8. Michaelson HB (1950) Work functions of the elements. J Appl Phys 21:536–540
9. Yoshitake M (2001) Pauling’s electronegativity: Japan-U.S. & Europe double Standard!? J Surf
Sci Soc Jpn 22:831–833 (in Japanese)
10. Huheey JE, Keiter EA, Keiter RL (1993) Inorganic chemistry—principles of structure and
reactivity, 4th edn. Harper Collins, New York
11. Lang ND, Kohn W (1971) Theory of metal surfaces: work function. Phys Rev B 3:1215–1223
12. Krahl-Urban B, Niekisch EA, Wagner H (1977) Work function of stepped tungsten single
crystal surfaces. Surf Sci 64:52–68
13. Vanselow R, Li XQD (1992) The work function of kinked areas on clean, thermally rounded Pt
and Rh crystallites: its dependence on the structure of terraces and edges. Surf Sci 264:L200–
L206
14. Kanter YO (1989) Theoretical analysis of work function oscillations during growth of thin
epitaxial films. Surf Sci 219:437–444
15. Lang ND (1971) Theory of work-function changes induced by alkali adsorption. Phys Rev B
4:4234–4244
16. Kiejna A, Wojciechowski KF, Zebrowski J (1979) The temperature dependence of metal work
functions. J Phys F: Met Phys 9:1361–1366
17. Kiejna A (1986) On the temperature dependence of the work function. Surf Sci 178:349–358
18. Gartland PO, Berge S, Slagsvold BJ (1973) Photoemission study of the anisotropic work
function of a clean copper single crystal. Phys Norvegica 7:39–49
19. Holzl J, Porsch G (1975) Contact potential difference measurement on polycrystalline Ni during
and after deposition with evaporated Ni in the temperature range 230° ≤ T ≤ 450°C. Thin Solid
Films 28:93–106
20. Christmann K, Ertl G, Schober O (1974) Temperature dependence of the work function of
nickel. Z Naturforsch 29a:1516–1517
21. Swanson LW, Crouser LC (1967) Total-energy distribution of field-emitted electrons and singleplane work functions for tungsten. Phys Rev 163:622–641
33
work functions. The manner of averaging depends on the measurement method used,
which will be discussed in Chap. 4. The inhomogeneity of the work function affects
phenomena involving electron emission into both vacuum and solids, and hence the
performance of electron devices. The manner by which the inhomogeneity affects
the performance depends on the physical principles utilized for each device. This
resembles the effect of inhomogeneity on the measurement of the work function.
References
1. Holzl J, Schulte FK (1979) Work function of metals in solid state physics. In: Springer tracts
in modern physics, vol 85. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York
2. Rademann K, Kaiser B, Even U, Hensel F (1987) Size dependence of the gradual transition to
metallic properties in isolated mercury clusters. Phys Rev Lett 59:2319–2321
3. Sze SM, Ng KK (2007) Physics of semiconductor devices, 3rd edn. Wiley, New Jersey
4. Takeuchi D, Kato H, Ri GS, Yamada T, Vinod PR, Hwang D, Nebel CE, Okushi H, Yamasaki
S (2005) Direct observation of negative electron affinity in hydrogen-terminated diamond
surfaces. Appl Phys Lett 86:152103-1-152103–3
5. Lang ND, Kohn W (1973) Theory of metal surfaces: induced surface charge and image potential.
Phys Rev B 7:3541–3550
6. IUPAC (1997) Compendium of chemical terminology, 2nd edn. (The “Gold Book”). Online
corrected version: (2006–) Electronegativity
7. Gordy W, Thomas WJO (1956) Electronegativities of the elements. J Chem Phys 24:439–444
8. Michaelson HB (1950) Work functions of the elements. J Appl Phys 21:536–540
9. Yoshitake M (2001) Pauling’s electronegativity: Japan-U.S. & Europe double Standard!? J Surf
Sci Soc Jpn 22:831–833 (in Japanese)
10. Huheey JE, Keiter EA, Keiter RL (1993) Inorganic chemistry—principles of structure and
reactivity, 4th edn. Harper Collins, New York
11. Lang ND, Kohn W (1971) Theory of metal surfaces: work function. Phys Rev B 3:1215–1223
12. Krahl-Urban B, Niekisch EA, Wagner H (1977) Work function of stepped tungsten single
crystal surfaces. Surf Sci 64:52–68
13. Vanselow R, Li XQD (1992) The work function of kinked areas on clean, thermally rounded Pt
and Rh crystallites: its dependence on the structure of terraces and edges. Surf Sci 264:L200–
L206
14. Kanter YO (1989) Theoretical analysis of work function oscillations during growth of thin
epitaxial films. Surf Sci 219:437–444
15. Lang ND (1971) Theory of work-function changes induced by alkali adsorption. Phys Rev B
4:4234–4244
16. Kiejna A, Wojciechowski KF, Zebrowski J (1979) The temperature dependence of metal work
functions. J Phys F: Met Phys 9:1361–1366
17. Kiejna A (1986) On the temperature dependence of the work function. Surf Sci 178:349–358
18. Gartland PO, Berge S, Slagsvold BJ (1973) Photoemission study of the anisotropic work
function of a clean copper single crystal. Phys Norvegica 7:39–49
19. Holzl J, Porsch G (1975) Contact potential difference measurement on polycrystalline Ni during
and after deposition with evaporated Ni in the temperature range 230° ≤ T ≤ 450°C. Thin Solid
Films 28:93–106
20. Christmann K, Ertl G, Schober O (1974) Temperature dependence of the work function of
nickel. Z Naturforsch 29a:1516–1517
21. Swanson LW, Crouser LC (1967) Total-energy distribution of field-emitted electrons and singleplane work functions for tungsten. Phys Rev 163:622–641