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poor impact resistance and fatigue strength, leaching monomer, or a favorable environment for bacterial growth, especially in acrylic prostheses, among others
(Deb 1998).
Another important class of polymers with dental applications is poly(ether-etherketone) (PEEK). This due to its remarkable properties such as white color, low
Young’s (elastic) modulus (YM = 3–4 GPa) (Skinner 2006), similar to human bone,
radiolucency, low allergic reaction and a versatile base, which can be targeted by
adding fillers such as ceramic or metal nanoparticles (NPs) including colloidal silica, quartz, zirconia, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) and carbon nanotubes
(Rahmitasari et al. 2017).
The introduction of rapid prototyping (RP) using three-dimensional (3D) printing technology or additive manufacturing has gained rapid popularity in the dental
and maxillofacial fields, due to its accuracy, efficiency and precision. The manufacturing of these 3D solid materials is given from a digital file by placing successive
layers of material, under the control of a computer. The ability to obtain complex
shapes, reduce waste of material and affordable equipment, are advantages of 3D
printing over subtractive computer-aided design (CAD)-computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) technology for bridges, computed tomography (CT)-imaged tissue
replicas, crowns, dentures, models, orthodontic appliances and surgical guides
(Gutiérrez 2018). Currently, 3D printing from polymers with different characteristics for dental applications are available. Depending on the requirements regarding
surface quality or level of production tolerances (accuracy), a certain type of polymer or manufacturing technology should be selected. For example, several studies
have shown that the production tolerances required for implant-supported fixed
prosthodontics should be less than 20–100 μm (Braian et al. 2014; Torsello et al.
2008). As a result, RP technology has an expected growth of approx. USD 5.06 billion by 2023, compared to 1.39 billion in 2017 (Market Research Report 2018).
This chapter will discuss the application of improved polymeric 3D printed
materials for restorative dentistry, oral and maxillofacial surgery, orthodontics, as
well as future trends for the development of new composite materials and technologies, such as bioprinting to mimic the clinical environment.
7.2 Additive Manufacturing Technologies From Polymers
for Dental and Maxillofacial Applications
According to ISO/ASTM (52900:2015), additive manufacturing technologies can
be classified into seven categories based on lamination methods: (1) binder jetting
(BJ): a liquid binder is sprayed onto the layer of the powder bed and this merges
particles together to form a solid layer, (2) directed energy deposition (DED):
focused thermal energy (electron beam, laser or plasma arc) is used to fuse materials
by melting as they are deposited, (3) material extrusion (ME): the material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle/orifice, (4) material jetting (MJ): the drops of
C. M. Cristache and E. E. Totu
poor impact resistance and fatigue strength, leaching monomer, or a favorable environment for bacterial growth, especially in acrylic prostheses, among others
(Deb 1998).
Another important class of polymers with dental applications is poly(ether-etherketone) (PEEK). This due to its remarkable properties such as white color, low
Young’s (elastic) modulus (YM = 3–4 GPa) (Skinner 2006), similar to human bone,
radiolucency, low allergic reaction and a versatile base, which can be targeted by
adding fillers such as ceramic or metal nanoparticles (NPs) including colloidal silica, quartz, zirconia, zinc oxide, titanium dioxide (TiO 2 ) and carbon nanotubes
(Rahmitasari et al. 2017).
The introduction of rapid prototyping (RP) using three-dimensional (3D) printing technology or additive manufacturing has gained rapid popularity in the dental
and maxillofacial fields, due to its accuracy, efficiency and precision. The manufacturing of these 3D solid materials is given from a digital file by placing successive
layers of material, under the control of a computer. The ability to obtain complex
shapes, reduce waste of material and affordable equipment, are advantages of 3D
printing over subtractive computer-aided design (CAD)-computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) technology for bridges, computed tomography (CT)-imaged tissue
replicas, crowns, dentures, models, orthodontic appliances and surgical guides
(Gutiérrez 2018). Currently, 3D printing from polymers with different characteristics for dental applications are available. Depending on the requirements regarding
surface quality or level of production tolerances (accuracy), a certain type of polymer or manufacturing technology should be selected. For example, several studies
have shown that the production tolerances required for implant-supported fixed
prosthodontics should be less than 20–100 μm (Braian et al. 2014; Torsello et al.
2008). As a result, RP technology has an expected growth of approx. USD 5.06 billion by 2023, compared to 1.39 billion in 2017 (Market Research Report 2018).
This chapter will discuss the application of improved polymeric 3D printed
materials for restorative dentistry, oral and maxillofacial surgery, orthodontics, as
well as future trends for the development of new composite materials and technologies, such as bioprinting to mimic the clinical environment.
7.2 Additive Manufacturing Technologies From Polymers
for Dental and Maxillofacial Applications
According to ISO/ASTM (52900:2015), additive manufacturing technologies can
be classified into seven categories based on lamination methods: (1) binder jetting
(BJ): a liquid binder is sprayed onto the layer of the powder bed and this merges
particles together to form a solid layer, (2) directed energy deposition (DED):
focused thermal energy (electron beam, laser or plasma arc) is used to fuse materials
by melting as they are deposited, (3) material extrusion (ME): the material is selectively dispensed through a nozzle/orifice, (4) material jetting (MJ): the drops of
C. M. Cristache and E. E. Totu