development. One of the limitations of the urban level is the current lack of standardization, since there are different frameworks such as Relative Carbon Footprint
—RCF, Publicly Available Specification—PAS 2070 and Global Protocol for
Community scale—GPC [34].
The city’s carbon footprint depends on the boundaries considered [39]. From
input–output tables, calculated for both a single-regional and a multi-regional level,
the incorporation of fossil fuels in the city carbon matrix can be much larger when a
larger spatial scale is defined, broadening the scope of the analysis and corresponding to a more realistic application of the footprint methodology. For consistency and comparison purposes to correctly support decision-makers, it is important
to establish requirements for these input–output tables, from national to regional
levels, in order to capture the interlinkages of greenhouse reduction measures and
avoid unacceptable errors due to inconsistent boundaries setting [40]. The calculation of the carbon footprint at the urban scale requires a difficult collection of data,
increased by the complexity of allocating emissions among the different sources,
from citizens to economic activities [34].
4.2.4 Country Scale
At the country level, the carbon footprint is usually based on a territorial approach
where the calculations of emissions and removals of GHG within the country are
compiled in an inventory that is communicated to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, to be properly assessed and compared. They have
to follow strict and precise methodological rules from the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change, also incorporated in the inventory specifications of the European Environmental Agency and the US Environmental Protection Agency.
One of the main objectives under an inventory of the GHG emissions is the
quantification of the efforts to lower carbon emissions through measures being
implemented. In most cases, countries have set obligatory or indicative targets to
comply with. In all these cases, a baseline year is required according to the international agreement considered. This might confuse comparisons and will give a
biased perspective that requires caution and carefulness when evaluating numbers
with different start and end dates.
4.2.5 Carbon Footprint for Organizations and Products
The carbon footprint of an organization or a product follows different processes.
While for an organization, the calculations are based in the activities throughout
different scopes, from direct emissions to a broader boundary including indirect and
related emissions supporting the work of the organization, for a product, a production to consumption life-cycle analysis prevails. Two international initiatives,
the “Carbon Trust” and the “Greenhouse Gas Protocol” (GHG Protocol), have been
fundamental for the credibility of the application of the carbon footprint concept to
products or services [41], and to organizations or businesses [42], respectively.
The Carbon Trust makes the calculation of the total global warming emissions
expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2 e) of the life cycle of a product or
service, from the extraction of its raw materials to end of life. They usually consider
22
J. Seixas and F. Ferreira
—RCF, Publicly Available Specification—PAS 2070 and Global Protocol for
Community scale—GPC [34].
The city’s carbon footprint depends on the boundaries considered [39]. From
input–output tables, calculated for both a single-regional and a multi-regional level,
the incorporation of fossil fuels in the city carbon matrix can be much larger when a
larger spatial scale is defined, broadening the scope of the analysis and corresponding to a more realistic application of the footprint methodology. For consistency and comparison purposes to correctly support decision-makers, it is important
to establish requirements for these input–output tables, from national to regional
levels, in order to capture the interlinkages of greenhouse reduction measures and
avoid unacceptable errors due to inconsistent boundaries setting [40]. The calculation of the carbon footprint at the urban scale requires a difficult collection of data,
increased by the complexity of allocating emissions among the different sources,
from citizens to economic activities [34].
4.2.4 Country Scale
At the country level, the carbon footprint is usually based on a territorial approach
where the calculations of emissions and removals of GHG within the country are
compiled in an inventory that is communicated to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, to be properly assessed and compared. They have
to follow strict and precise methodological rules from the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change, also incorporated in the inventory specifications of the European Environmental Agency and the US Environmental Protection Agency.
One of the main objectives under an inventory of the GHG emissions is the
quantification of the efforts to lower carbon emissions through measures being
implemented. In most cases, countries have set obligatory or indicative targets to
comply with. In all these cases, a baseline year is required according to the international agreement considered. This might confuse comparisons and will give a
biased perspective that requires caution and carefulness when evaluating numbers
with different start and end dates.
4.2.5 Carbon Footprint for Organizations and Products
The carbon footprint of an organization or a product follows different processes.
While for an organization, the calculations are based in the activities throughout
different scopes, from direct emissions to a broader boundary including indirect and
related emissions supporting the work of the organization, for a product, a production to consumption life-cycle analysis prevails. Two international initiatives,
the “Carbon Trust” and the “Greenhouse Gas Protocol” (GHG Protocol), have been
fundamental for the credibility of the application of the carbon footprint concept to
products or services [41], and to organizations or businesses [42], respectively.
The Carbon Trust makes the calculation of the total global warming emissions
expressed in carbon dioxide equivalents (CO 2 e) of the life cycle of a product or
service, from the extraction of its raw materials to end of life. They usually consider
22
J. Seixas and F. Ferreira