266 L.-C. SIM
as heat pumps, gasifiers, and electric vehicles, as well as to broader changes
in energy systems such as the rise of renewable sources like solar and
wind, and resistance to change from hydrocarbon-based energy regimes. 8
Although the overwhelming majority of these case studies is Europecentric, the framework has been used to explore the uptake of renewable
energy in the MENA region and in Saudi Arabia and Jordan. 9
MLP distinguishes between three levels of analysis—niche (micro),
regime (meso), landscape (macro)—to understand the extent to which
incumbent regimes can be destabilized as a result of developments and
processes in other levels. The niche is inhabited by novel innovations as
well as the actors and institutions that champion them. In this regard,
nuclear-fuelled electricity does not appear to be a niche technology, particularly in the industrialized world. One-tenth of the world’s electricity
is generated by 450 nuclear reactors located in 30 countries. Around
20 countries including France, South Korea, Russia, Finland, Czech
Republic, UK produce at least one-fifth of their electricity from nuclear
energy while Italy and Denmark import significant shares of nuclearfuelled electricity from their neighbours. Nuclear energy is an established,
albeit controversial, technology which has even been endorsed by the
United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to keep
global warming below the two degrees scenario.
Nevertheless, as far as the MENA region is concerned, nuclear power
is a niche technology. In 2019, nuclear power accounted for a mere 0.4%
of electricity generation (see Fig. 10.1), making MENA the region with
the lowest share of nuclear in total primary energy supply in the world. 10
Several countries host research reactors at academic institutions but these
only engage in small-scale niche research into topics such as irradiated
barley varieties suited for desert conditions or production of radioisotopes
for industrial and medical purposes, and also for training of personnel.
The landscape lies outside the direct control of niche and regime
levels. It is the domain of slow-moving long-term trends including climate
change, migration, demography, oil demand, and economic ideologies
like the Washington Consensus. It also includes unanticipated shortterm shocks such as the collapse of the Soviet Union, natural disasters,
fluctuations in oil prices, and the financial crisis of 2008.
The regime level features the network of actors, institutions, rules,
habits, material infrastructure, business models, and societal expectations
that have evolved alongside, locked in, stabilized, and perpetuated the
incumbent energy regime. In the case of the Gulf for example, the energy
as heat pumps, gasifiers, and electric vehicles, as well as to broader changes
in energy systems such as the rise of renewable sources like solar and
wind, and resistance to change from hydrocarbon-based energy regimes. 8
Although the overwhelming majority of these case studies is Europecentric, the framework has been used to explore the uptake of renewable
energy in the MENA region and in Saudi Arabia and Jordan. 9
MLP distinguishes between three levels of analysis—niche (micro),
regime (meso), landscape (macro)—to understand the extent to which
incumbent regimes can be destabilized as a result of developments and
processes in other levels. The niche is inhabited by novel innovations as
well as the actors and institutions that champion them. In this regard,
nuclear-fuelled electricity does not appear to be a niche technology, particularly in the industrialized world. One-tenth of the world’s electricity
is generated by 450 nuclear reactors located in 30 countries. Around
20 countries including France, South Korea, Russia, Finland, Czech
Republic, UK produce at least one-fifth of their electricity from nuclear
energy while Italy and Denmark import significant shares of nuclearfuelled electricity from their neighbours. Nuclear energy is an established,
albeit controversial, technology which has even been endorsed by the
United Nations’ Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change to keep
global warming below the two degrees scenario.
Nevertheless, as far as the MENA region is concerned, nuclear power
is a niche technology. In 2019, nuclear power accounted for a mere 0.4%
of electricity generation (see Fig. 10.1), making MENA the region with
the lowest share of nuclear in total primary energy supply in the world. 10
Several countries host research reactors at academic institutions but these
only engage in small-scale niche research into topics such as irradiated
barley varieties suited for desert conditions or production of radioisotopes
for industrial and medical purposes, and also for training of personnel.
The landscape lies outside the direct control of niche and regime
levels. It is the domain of slow-moving long-term trends including climate
change, migration, demography, oil demand, and economic ideologies
like the Washington Consensus. It also includes unanticipated shortterm shocks such as the collapse of the Soviet Union, natural disasters,
fluctuations in oil prices, and the financial crisis of 2008.
The regime level features the network of actors, institutions, rules,
habits, material infrastructure, business models, and societal expectations
that have evolved alongside, locked in, stabilized, and perpetuated the
incumbent energy regime. In the case of the Gulf for example, the energy