75
protein breakdown and mostly occur in distal part of the colon. Both types of fermentation produce different end products which can further be analyzed to determine the efficacy of RS as prebiotic. The two types of fermentation produce different
by products which can be tested to determine the RS efficacy as prebiotic candidates.
Criteria III
Sometimes, the RS might not fulfill Criteria II of being fermentable by beneficial
probiotic bacteria. The fermentation, in some cases, might not be specific towards
the beneficial bacteria. The RS may also be fermented by a wide array of intestinal
microbiota including the pathogens. This causes complications when investigating
a putative prebiotic carbohydrate, making Criteria III most difficult to fulfill (Gibson
et al. 2004). Such investigations require extensive quantitative microbiological analysis of colonic bacteria such as bifidobacteria, lactobacilli, enterobacteria, clostridia, eubacteria and the total aerobes/anaerobes for which molecular-based
microbiological methodologies have been developed and accepted as a reliable tool
(Sarbini et al. 2013). Also, the production of gas, enzymes and organic acids has
been used as indicators to monitor stimulation of bacterial activity (Sarbini and
Rastall 2011). Figure 2 demonstrates the process of RS to be qualified as a prebiotic.
Table 3 enlists the methodologies developed to test the potential of RS as a prebiotic.
Starch as Nano Delivery System for Bioactive Compounds
Nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most innovative technologies in the last
two decades and focuses on the characterization, fabrication and manipulation of
matter structure at dimensions of roughly 1–100 nm (Gallocchio et al. 2015). The
fabrication of foods at the nano scale, for example liposomes, micelles, nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, nanofibers, nanotubes and nanocomposites have been exploited
for increasing shelf life, improving flavor profiles, enhancement of nutritional value
of bioactive components and improving properties of packaging materials (Dufresne
2014; Gallocchio et al. 2015). Recently it is reported that nano-structured particles
were used to develop more effective delivery vehicles to target sites for increasing
efficiency, bioavailability and absorption of nutraceuticals (Ahmad et al 2019a,
2019b; 2019c; Ahmad et al 2018; Ahmad et al 2017).
The nanoparticles can be produced from proteins (such as, gelatin and milk proteins), polysaccharides (such as chitosan, sodium alginate and starch), and synthetic
polymers. Among them starch being the second most abundant biodegradable material can be commercially more important for the food industry (Le-Corre et al.
2010). The starch structure has been under research for years, but because of its
complexity, the universally accepted model is still lacking (Buléon et al. 1998).
However, the predominant model for starch is a concentric semicrystalline multiscale structure that allows the production of new nanoelements: (1) starch
Recent Advances in the Application of Starch and Resistant Starch
protein breakdown and mostly occur in distal part of the colon. Both types of fermentation produce different end products which can further be analyzed to determine the efficacy of RS as prebiotic. The two types of fermentation produce different
by products which can be tested to determine the RS efficacy as prebiotic candidates.
Criteria III
Sometimes, the RS might not fulfill Criteria II of being fermentable by beneficial
probiotic bacteria. The fermentation, in some cases, might not be specific towards
the beneficial bacteria. The RS may also be fermented by a wide array of intestinal
microbiota including the pathogens. This causes complications when investigating
a putative prebiotic carbohydrate, making Criteria III most difficult to fulfill (Gibson
et al. 2004). Such investigations require extensive quantitative microbiological analysis of colonic bacteria such as bifidobacteria, lactobacilli, enterobacteria, clostridia, eubacteria and the total aerobes/anaerobes for which molecular-based
microbiological methodologies have been developed and accepted as a reliable tool
(Sarbini et al. 2013). Also, the production of gas, enzymes and organic acids has
been used as indicators to monitor stimulation of bacterial activity (Sarbini and
Rastall 2011). Figure 2 demonstrates the process of RS to be qualified as a prebiotic.
Table 3 enlists the methodologies developed to test the potential of RS as a prebiotic.
Starch as Nano Delivery System for Bioactive Compounds
Nanotechnology has emerged as one of the most innovative technologies in the last
two decades and focuses on the characterization, fabrication and manipulation of
matter structure at dimensions of roughly 1–100 nm (Gallocchio et al. 2015). The
fabrication of foods at the nano scale, for example liposomes, micelles, nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, nanofibers, nanotubes and nanocomposites have been exploited
for increasing shelf life, improving flavor profiles, enhancement of nutritional value
of bioactive components and improving properties of packaging materials (Dufresne
2014; Gallocchio et al. 2015). Recently it is reported that nano-structured particles
were used to develop more effective delivery vehicles to target sites for increasing
efficiency, bioavailability and absorption of nutraceuticals (Ahmad et al 2019a,
2019b; 2019c; Ahmad et al 2018; Ahmad et al 2017).
The nanoparticles can be produced from proteins (such as, gelatin and milk proteins), polysaccharides (such as chitosan, sodium alginate and starch), and synthetic
polymers. Among them starch being the second most abundant biodegradable material can be commercially more important for the food industry (Le-Corre et al.
2010). The starch structure has been under research for years, but because of its
complexity, the universally accepted model is still lacking (Buléon et al. 1998).
However, the predominant model for starch is a concentric semicrystalline multiscale structure that allows the production of new nanoelements: (1) starch
Recent Advances in the Application of Starch and Resistant Starch