237
enzymes can be chosen to get the desired fragment and effect (Tavano 2013).
Enzymatic hydrolysis of peptides or parent proteins may be performed either in a
continuous mode or in batches (Madureira et al. 2010). Continuous process of
hydrolysis is being preferred more nowadays to compensate for the high cost of
batch processes (Yadav et al. 2015).
Microbial Fermentation (In Vitro)
Biotechnological interventions based on the exploitation of microorganisms for the
production of bioactive peptides have been used for past many decades (Rizzello
et al. 2016). Fermentation is mostly done for the production of certain foods for
example production of natto and tempeh prepared from soybean fermentation were
reported to exhibit antioxidant activity because of the presence of bioactive peptides
(Vallabha and Tiku 2014; Babini et al. 2017). The amount and the type of bioactive
peptides vary with type of microbial cultures used. Recently, the investigation carried to assess the effect of fermentation using Lactobacillus plantarum on release of
bioactive peptides during gastrointestinal digestion revealed that time and temperature of fermentation affects release of bioactive peptides during gastrointestinal
digestion in case of soybeans (Jakubczyk et al. 2017; Singh and Vij 2017).
Since many dairy starter cultures are proteolytic in nature, release of bioactive
peptides can be expected during production of fermented dairy products (Korhonen
2009). These cultures consist of cell wall-bound peptidases and proteinases like
dipeptidases, tripeptidases, amino-peptidases, and endopeptidases (Griffiths and
Tellez 2013). Microbial proteolysis may generate many potent bioactive peptides
(Muro Urista et al. 2011). Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are the most common starter
cultures used to hydrolyze milk proteins, especially caseins, due to their highly
proteolytic nature (Hernandez-Ledesma et al. 2011; Szwajkowska et al. 2011). For
instance, milk hydrolysates with high ACE-inhibitory activity were obtained from
LAB fermented milk and subsequent hydrolysis with a microbial enzyme (Chen
et al. 2007). Fuglsang et al. (2003) also evaluated the ability of more than 25 wildtype strains of LAB to produce fermented milk with antihypertensive activity. A
different study reported casein fragments having potential antihypertensive property when nine different microbial proteolytic enzymes were used (Mizuno et al.
2004). Peptides from yogurt bacteria, probiotic bacteria, and cheese starter bacteria
have been studied for their ability to have potential health effects (Gomez-Ruiz
et al. 2002; Fuglsang et al. 2003; Gobbetti et al. 2004; Donkor et al. 2007). Apart
from bacteria, yeast species like Kluyveromyces marxianus and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae are reported to produce peptides from goat whey proteins (Didelot et al.
2006; Hamme et al. 2009).
Bioactive Peptides Derived from Different Sources
enzymes can be chosen to get the desired fragment and effect (Tavano 2013).
Enzymatic hydrolysis of peptides or parent proteins may be performed either in a
continuous mode or in batches (Madureira et al. 2010). Continuous process of
hydrolysis is being preferred more nowadays to compensate for the high cost of
batch processes (Yadav et al. 2015).
Microbial Fermentation (In Vitro)
Biotechnological interventions based on the exploitation of microorganisms for the
production of bioactive peptides have been used for past many decades (Rizzello
et al. 2016). Fermentation is mostly done for the production of certain foods for
example production of natto and tempeh prepared from soybean fermentation were
reported to exhibit antioxidant activity because of the presence of bioactive peptides
(Vallabha and Tiku 2014; Babini et al. 2017). The amount and the type of bioactive
peptides vary with type of microbial cultures used. Recently, the investigation carried to assess the effect of fermentation using Lactobacillus plantarum on release of
bioactive peptides during gastrointestinal digestion revealed that time and temperature of fermentation affects release of bioactive peptides during gastrointestinal
digestion in case of soybeans (Jakubczyk et al. 2017; Singh and Vij 2017).
Since many dairy starter cultures are proteolytic in nature, release of bioactive
peptides can be expected during production of fermented dairy products (Korhonen
2009). These cultures consist of cell wall-bound peptidases and proteinases like
dipeptidases, tripeptidases, amino-peptidases, and endopeptidases (Griffiths and
Tellez 2013). Microbial proteolysis may generate many potent bioactive peptides
(Muro Urista et al. 2011). Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are the most common starter
cultures used to hydrolyze milk proteins, especially caseins, due to their highly
proteolytic nature (Hernandez-Ledesma et al. 2011; Szwajkowska et al. 2011). For
instance, milk hydrolysates with high ACE-inhibitory activity were obtained from
LAB fermented milk and subsequent hydrolysis with a microbial enzyme (Chen
et al. 2007). Fuglsang et al. (2003) also evaluated the ability of more than 25 wildtype strains of LAB to produce fermented milk with antihypertensive activity. A
different study reported casein fragments having potential antihypertensive property when nine different microbial proteolytic enzymes were used (Mizuno et al.
2004). Peptides from yogurt bacteria, probiotic bacteria, and cheese starter bacteria
have been studied for their ability to have potential health effects (Gomez-Ruiz
et al. 2002; Fuglsang et al. 2003; Gobbetti et al. 2004; Donkor et al. 2007). Apart
from bacteria, yeast species like Kluyveromyces marxianus and Saccharomyces
cerevisiae are reported to produce peptides from goat whey proteins (Didelot et al.
2006; Hamme et al. 2009).
Bioactive Peptides Derived from Different Sources